Cost optimized workload placement

ABSTRACT

Migrating workloads between a plurality of execution environments, including: identifying, in dependence upon on characteristics of a workload, one or more execution environments that can support the workload; determining, for each execution environment, costs associated with supporting the workload on the execution environment; selecting, in dependence upon the costs associated with supporting the workload on each the execution environments, a target execution environment for supporting the workload; and executing the workload on the target execution environment.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation of and claims priority from U.S. patent application Ser. No. 16/109,938, filed Aug. 23, 2018, which is a continuation-in-part application of and claims priority from U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/987,875, filed May 23, 2018, which claims the benefit of: U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 62/518,146, filed Jun. 12, 2017, U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 62/549,399, filed Aug. 23, 2017, U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 62/575,966, filed Oct. 23, 2017, and U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 62/674,688, filed May 22, 2018.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS

FIG. 1A illustrates a first example system for data storage in accordance with some implementations.

FIG. 1B illustrates a second example system for data storage in accordance with some implementations.

FIG. 1C illustrates a third example system for data storage in accordance with some implementations.

FIG. 1D illustrates a fourth example system for data storage in accordance with some implementations.

FIG. 2A is a perspective view of a storage cluster with multiple storage nodes and internal storage coupled to each storage node to provide network attached storage, in accordance with some embodiments.

FIG. 2B is a block diagram showing an interconnect switch coupling multiple storage nodes in accordance with some embodiments.

FIG. 2C is a multiple level block diagram, showing contents of a storage node and contents of one of the non-volatile solid state storage units in accordance with some embodiments.

FIG. 2D shows a storage server environment, which uses embodiments of the storage nodes and storage units of some previous figures in accordance with some embodiments.

FIG. 2E is a blade hardware block diagram, showing a control plane, compute and storage planes, and authorities interacting with underlying physical resources, in accordance with some embodiments.

FIG. 2F depicts elasticity software layers in blades of a storage cluster, in accordance with some embodiments.

FIG. 2G depicts authorities and storage resources in blades of a storage cluster, in accordance with some embodiments.

FIG. 3A sets forth a diagram of a storage system that is coupled for data communications with a cloud services provider in accordance with some embodiments of the present disclosure.

FIG. 3B sets forth a diagram of a storage system in accordance with some embodiments of the present disclosure.

FIG. 4 sets forth a flowchart illustrating an example method of workload planning in a storage system according to some embodiments of the present disclosure.

FIG. 5 sets forth a flowchart illustrating an additional example method of workload planning in a storage system according to some embodiments of the present disclosure.

FIG. 6 sets forth a flowchart illustrating an additional example method of workload planning in a storage system according to some embodiments of the present disclosure.

FIG. 7 sets forth a flowchart illustrating an additional example method of workload planning in a storage system according to some embodiments of the present disclosure.

FIG. 8 sets forth a flowchart illustrating an additional example method of workload planning in a storage system according to some embodiments of the present disclosure.

FIG. 9 sets forth a flowchart illustrating an additional example method of workload planning in a storage system according to some embodiments of the present disclosure.

FIG. 10 sets forth a flowchart illustrating an example method of migrating workloads between a plurality of execution environments according to some embodiments of the present disclosure.

FIG. 11 sets forth a flowchart illustrating an additional example method of migrating workloads between a plurality of execution environments according to some embodiments of the present disclosure.

FIG. 12 sets forth a flowchart illustrating an additional example method of migrating workloads between a plurality of execution environments according to some embodiments of the present disclosure.

FIG. 13 sets forth a flowchart illustrating an additional example method of migrating workloads between a plurality of execution environments according to some embodiments of the present disclosure.

FIG. 14 sets forth a flowchart illustrating an additional example method of migrating workloads between a plurality of execution environments according to some embodiments of the present disclosure.

FIG. 15 sets forth a flowchart illustrating an additional example method of migrating workloads between a plurality of execution environments according to some embodiments of the present disclosure.

FIG. 16 sets forth a flowchart illustrating an additional example method of migrating workloads between a plurality of execution environments according to some embodiments of the present disclosure.

DESCRIPTION OF EMBODIMENTS

Example methods, apparatus, and products for migrating workloads between a plurality of execution environments in accordance with embodiments of the present disclosure are described with reference to the accompanying drawings, beginning with FIG. 1A. FIG. 1A illustrates an example system for data storage, in accordance with some implementations. System 100 (also referred to as “storage system” herein) includes numerous elements for purposes of illustration rather than limitation. It may be noted that system 100 may include the same, more, or fewer elements configured in the same or different manner in other implementations.

System 100 includes a number of computing devices 164A-B. Computing devices (also referred to as “client devices” herein) may be embodied, for example, a server in a data center, a workstation, a personal computer, a notebook, or the like. Computing devices 164A-B may be coupled for data communications to one or more storage arrays 102A-B through a storage area network (‘SAN’) 158 or a local area network (‘LAN’) 160.

The SAN 158 may be implemented with a variety of data communications fabrics, devices, and protocols. For example, the fabrics for SAN 158 may include Fibre Channel, Ethernet, Infiniband, Serial Attached Small Computer System Interface (‘SAS’), or the like. Data communications protocols for use with SAN 158 may include Advanced Technology Attachment (‘ATA’), Fibre Channel Protocol, Small Computer System Interface (‘SCSI’), Internet Small Computer System Interface (‘iSCSI’), HyperSCSI, Non-Volatile Memory Express (‘NVMe’) over Fabrics, or the like. It may be noted that SAN 158 is provided for illustration, rather than limitation. Other data communication couplings may be implemented between computing devices 164A-B and storage arrays 102A-B.

The LAN 160 may also be implemented with a variety of fabrics, devices, and protocols. For example, the fabrics for LAN 160 may include Ethernet (802.3), wireless (802.11), or the like. Data communication protocols for use in LAN 160 may include Transmission Control Protocol (‘TCP’), User Datagram Protocol (‘UDP’), Internet Protocol (‘IP’), HyperText Transfer Protocol (‘HTTP’), Wireless Access Protocol (‘WAP’), Handheld Device Transport Protocol (‘HDTP’), Session Initiation Protocol (‘SIP’), Real Time Protocol (‘RTP’), or the like.

Storage arrays 102A-B may provide persistent data storage for the computing devices 164A-B. Storage array 102A may be contained in a chassis (not shown), and storage array 102B may be contained in another chassis (not shown), in implementations. Storage array 102A and 102B may include one or more storage array controllers 110A-D (also referred to as “controller” herein). A storage array controller 110A-D may be embodied as a module of automated computing machinery comprising computer hardware, computer software, or a combination of computer hardware and software. In some implementations, the storage array controllers 110A-D may be configured to carry out various storage tasks. Storage tasks may include writing data received from the computing devices 164A-B to storage array 102A-B, erasing data from storage array 102A-B, retrieving data from storage array 102A-B and providing data to computing devices 164A-B, monitoring and reporting of disk utilization and performance, performing redundancy operations, such as Redundant Array of Independent Drives (‘RAID’) or RAID-like data redundancy operations, compressing data, encrypting data, and so forth.

Storage array controller 110A-D may be implemented in a variety of ways, including as a Field Programmable Gate Array (‘FPGA’), a Programmable Logic Chip (‘PLC’), an Application Specific Integrated Circuit (‘ASIC’), System-on-Chip (‘SOC’), or any computing device that includes discrete components such as a processing device, central processing unit, computer memory, or various adapters. Storage array controller 110A-D may include, for example, a data communications adapter configured to support communications via the SAN 158 or LAN 160. In some implementations, storage array controller 110A-D may be independently coupled to the LAN 160. In implementations, storage array controller 110A-D may include an I/O controller or the like that couples the storage array controller 110A-D for data communications, through a midplane (not shown), to a persistent storage resource 170A-B (also referred to as a “storage resource” herein). The persistent storage resource 170A-B main include any number of storage drives 171A-F (also referred to as “storage devices” herein) and any number of non-volatile Random Access Memory (‘NVRAM’) devices (not shown).

In some implementations, the NVRAM devices of a persistent storage resource 170A-B may be configured to receive, from the storage array controller 110A-D, data to be stored in the storage drives 171A-F. In some examples, the data may originate from computing devices 164A-B. In some examples, writing data to the NVRAM device may be carried out more quickly than directly writing data to the storage drive 171A-F. In implementations, the storage array controller 110A-D may be configured to utilize the NVRAM devices as a quickly accessible buffer for data destined to be written to the storage drives 171A-F. Latency for write requests using NVRAM devices as a buffer may be improved relative to a system in which a storage array controller 110A-D writes data directly to the storage drives 171A-F. In some implementations, the NVRAM devices may be implemented with computer memory in the form of high bandwidth, low latency RAM. The NVRAM device is referred to as “non-volatile” because the NVRAM device may receive or include a unique power source that maintains the state of the RAM after main power loss to the NVRAM device. Such a power source may be a battery, one or more capacitors, or the like. In response to a power loss, the NVRAM device may be configured to write the contents of the RAM to a persistent storage, such as the storage drives 171A-F.

In implementations, storage drive 171A-F may refer to any device configured to record data persistently, where “persistently” or “persistent” refers to a device's ability to maintain recorded data after loss of power. In some implementations, storage drive 171A-F may correspond to non-disk storage media. For example, the storage drive 171A-F may be one or more solid-state drives (‘SSDs’), flash memory based storage, any type of solid-state non-volatile memory, or any other type of non-mechanical storage device. In other implementations, storage drive 171A-F may include mechanical or spinning hard disk, such as hard-disk drives (‘HDD’).

In some implementations, the storage array controllers 110A-D may be configured for offloading device management responsibilities from storage drive 171A-F in storage array 102A-B. For example, storage array controllers 110A-D may manage control information that may describe the state of one or more memory blocks in the storage drives 171A-F. The control information may indicate, for example, that a particular memory block has failed and should no longer be written to, that a particular memory block contains boot code for a storage array controller 110A-D, the number of program-erase (‘P/E’) cycles that have been performed on a particular memory block, the age of data stored in a particular memory block, the type of data that is stored in a particular memory block, and so forth. In some implementations, the control information may be stored with an associated memory block as metadata. In other implementations, the control information for the storage drives 171A-F may be stored in one or more particular memory blocks of the storage drives 171A-F that are selected by the storage array controller 110A-D. The selected memory blocks may be tagged with an identifier indicating that the selected memory block contains control information. The identifier may be utilized by the storage array controllers 110A-D in conjunction with storage drives 171A-F to quickly identify the memory blocks that contain control information. For example, the storage controllers 110A-D may issue a command to locate memory blocks that contain control information. It may be noted that control information may be so large that parts of the control information may be stored in multiple locations, that the control information may be stored in multiple locations for purposes of redundancy, for example, or that the control information may otherwise be distributed across multiple memory blocks in the storage drive 171A-F.

In implementations, storage array controllers 110A-D may offload device management responsibilities from storage drives 171A-F of storage array 102A-B by retrieving, from the storage drives 171A-F, control information describing the state of one or more memory blocks in the storage drives 171A-F. Retrieving the control information from the storage drives 171A-F may be carried out, for example, by the storage array controller 110A-D querying the storage drives 171A-F for the location of control information for a particular storage drive 171A-F. The storage drives 171A-F may be configured to execute instructions that enable the storage drive 171A-F to identify the location of the control information. The instructions may be executed by a controller (not shown) associated with or otherwise located on the storage drive 171A-F and may cause the storage drive 171A-F to scan a portion of each memory block to identify the memory blocks that store control information for the storage drives 171A-F. The storage drives 171A-F may respond by sending a response message to the storage array controller 110A-D that includes the location of control information for the storage drive 171A-F. Responsive to receiving the response message, storage array controllers 110A-D may issue a request to read data stored at the address associated with the location of control information for the storage drives 171A-F.

In other implementations, the storage array controllers 110A-D may further offload device management responsibilities from storage drives 171A-F by performing, in response to receiving the control information, a storage drive management operation. A storage drive management operation may include, for example, an operation that is typically performed by the storage drive 171A-F (e.g., the controller (not shown) associated with a particular storage drive 171A-F). A storage drive management operation may include, for example, ensuring that data is not written to failed memory blocks within the storage drive 171A-F, ensuring that data is written to memory blocks within the storage drive 171A-F in such a way that adequate wear leveling is achieved, and so forth.

In implementations, storage array 102A-B may implement two or more storage array controllers 110A-D. For example, storage array 102A may include storage array controllers 110A and storage array controllers 110B. At a given instance, a single storage array controller 110A-D (e.g., storage array controller 110A) of a storage system 100 may be designated with primary status (also referred to as “primary controller” herein), and other storage array controllers 110A-D (e.g., storage array controller 110A) may be designated with secondary status (also referred to as “secondary controller” herein). The primary controller may have particular rights, such as permission to alter data in persistent storage resource 170A-B (e.g., writing data to persistent storage resource 170A-B). At least some of the rights of the primary controller may supersede the rights of the secondary controller. For instance, the secondary controller may not have permission to alter data in persistent storage resource 170A-B when the primary controller has the right. The status of storage array controllers 110A-D may change. For example, storage array controller 110A may be designated with secondary status, and storage array controller 110B may be designated with primary status.

In some implementations, a primary controller, such as storage array controller 110A, may serve as the primary controller for one or more storage arrays 102A-B, and a second controller, such as storage array controller 110B, may serve as the secondary controller for the one or more storage arrays 102A-B. For example, storage array controller 110A may be the primary controller for storage array 102A and storage array 102B, and storage array controller 110B may be the secondary controller for storage array 102A and 102B. In some implementations, storage array controllers 110C and 110D (also referred to as “storage processing modules”) may neither have primary or secondary status. Storage array controllers 110C and 110D, implemented as storage processing modules, may act as a communication interface between the primary and secondary controllers (e.g., storage array controllers 110A and 110B, respectively) and storage array 102B. For example, storage array controller 110A of storage array 102A may send a write request, via SAN 158, to storage array 102B. The write request may be received by both storage array controllers 110C and 110D of storage array 102B. Storage array controllers 110C and 110D facilitate the communication, e.g., send the write request to the appropriate storage drive 171A-F. It may be noted that in some implementations storage processing modules may be used to increase the number of storage drives controlled by the primary and secondary controllers.

In implementations, storage array controllers 110A-D are communicatively coupled, via a midplane (not shown), to one or more storage drives 171A-F and to one or more NVRAM devices (not shown) that are included as part of a storage array 102A-B. The storage array controllers 110A-D may be coupled to the midplane via one or more data communication links and the midplane may be coupled to the storage drives 171A-F and the NVRAM devices via one or more data communications links. The data communications links described herein are collectively illustrated by data communications links 108A-D and may include a Peripheral Component Interconnect Express (‘PCIe’) bus, for example.

FIG. 1B illustrates an example system for data storage, in accordance with some implementations. Storage array controller 101 illustrated in FIG. 1B may be similar to the storage array controllers 110A-D described with respect to FIG. 1A. In one example, storage array controller 101 may be similar to storage array controller 110A or storage array controller 110B. Storage array controller 101 includes numerous elements for purposes of illustration rather than limitation. It may be noted that storage array controller 101 may include the same, more, or fewer elements configured in the same or different manner in other implementations. It may be noted that elements of FIG. 1A may be included below to help illustrate features of storage array controller 101.

Storage array controller 101 may include one or more processing devices 104 and random access memory (‘RAM’) 111. Processing device 104 (or controller 101) represents one or more general-purpose processing devices such as a microprocessor, central processing unit, or the like. More particularly, the processing device 104 (or controller 101) may be a complex instruction set computing (‘CISC’) microprocessor, reduced instruction set computing (‘RISC’) microprocessor, very long instruction word (‘VLIW’) microprocessor, or a processor implementing other instruction sets or processors implementing a combination of instruction sets. The processing device 104 (or controller 101) may also be one or more special-purpose processing devices such as an application specific integrated circuit (‘ASIC’), a field programmable gate array (‘FPGA’), a digital signal processor (‘DSP’), network processor, or the like.

The processing device 104 may be connected to the RAM 111 via a data communications link 106, which may be embodied as a high speed memory bus such as a Double-Data Rate 4 (‘DDR4’) bus. Stored in RAM 111 is an operating system 112. In some implementations, instructions 113 are stored in RAM 111. Instructions 113 may include computer program instructions for performing operations in a direct-mapped flash storage system. In one embodiment, a direct-mapped flash storage system is one that addresses data blocks within flash drives directly and without an address translation performed by the storage controllers of the flash drives.

In implementations, storage array controller 101 includes one or more host bus adapters 103A-C that are coupled to the processing device 104 via a data communications link 105A-C. In implementations, host bus adapters 103A-C may be computer hardware that connects a host system (e.g., the storage array controller) to other network and storage arrays. In some examples, host bus adapters 103A-C may be a Fibre Channel adapter that enables the storage array controller 101 to connect to a SAN, an Ethernet adapter that enables the storage array controller 101 to connect to a LAN, or the like. Host bus adapters 103A-C may be coupled to the processing device 104 via a data communications link 105A-C such as, for example, a PCIe bus.

In implementations, storage array controller 101 may include a host bus adapter 114 that is coupled to an expander 115. The expander 115 may be used to attach a host system to a larger number of storage drives. The expander 115 may, for example, be a SAS expander utilized to enable the host bus adapter 114 to attach to storage drives in an implementation where the host bus adapter 114 is embodied as a SAS controller.

In implementations, storage array controller 101 may include a switch 116 coupled to the processing device 104 via a data communications link 109. The switch 116 may be a computer hardware device that can create multiple endpoints out of a single endpoint, thereby enabling multiple devices to share a single endpoint. The switch 116 may, for example, be a PCIe switch that is coupled to a PCIe bus (e.g., data communications link 109) and presents multiple PCIe connection points to the midplane.

In implementations, storage array controller 101 includes a data communications link 107 for coupling the storage array controller 101 to other storage array controllers. In some examples, data communications link 107 may be a QuickPath Interconnect (QPI) interconnect.

A traditional storage system that uses traditional flash drives may implement a process across the flash drives that are part of the traditional storage system. For example, a higher level process of the storage system may initiate and control a process across the flash drives. However, a flash drive of the traditional storage system may include its own storage controller that also performs the process. Thus, for the traditional storage system, a higher level process (e.g., initiated by the storage system) and a lower level process (e.g., initiated by a storage controller of the storage system) may both be performed.

To resolve various deficiencies of a traditional storage system, operations may be performed by higher level processes and not by the lower level processes. For example, the flash storage system may include flash drives that do not include storage controllers that provide the process. Thus, the operating system of the flash storage system itself may initiate and control the process. This may be accomplished by a direct-mapped flash storage system that addresses data blocks within the flash drives directly and without an address translation performed by the storage controllers of the flash drives.

The operating system of the flash storage system may identify and maintain a list of allocation units across multiple flash drives of the flash storage system. The allocation units may be entire erase blocks or multiple erase blocks. The operating system may maintain a map or address range that directly maps addresses to erase blocks of the flash drives of the flash storage system.

Direct mapping to the erase blocks of the flash drives may be used to rewrite data and erase data. For example, the operations may be performed on one or more allocation units that include a first data and a second data where the first data is to be retained and the second data is no longer being used by the flash storage system. The operating system may initiate the process to write the first data to new locations within other allocation units and erasing the second data and marking the allocation units as being available for use for subsequent data. Thus, the process may only be performed by the higher level operating system of the flash storage system without an additional lower level process being performed by controllers of the flash drives.

Advantages of the process being performed only by the operating system of the flash storage system include increased reliability of the flash drives of the flash storage system as unnecessary or redundant write operations are not being performed during the process. One possible point of novelty here is the concept of initiating and controlling the process at the operating system of the flash storage system. In addition, the process can be controlled by the operating system across multiple flash drives. This is in contrast to the process being performed by a storage controller of a flash drive.

A storage system can consist of two storage array controllers that share a set of drives for failover purposes, or it could consist of a single storage array controller that provides a storage service that utilizes multiple drives, or it could consist of a distributed network of storage array controllers each with some number of drives or some amount of Flash storage where the storage array controllers in the network collaborate to provide a complete storage service and collaborate on various aspects of a storage service including storage allocation and garbage collection.

FIG. 1C illustrates a third example system 117 for data storage in accordance with some implementations. System 117 (also referred to as “storage system” herein) includes numerous elements for purposes of illustration rather than limitation. It may be noted that system 117 may include the same, more, or fewer elements configured in the same or different manner in other implementations.

In one embodiment, system 117 includes a dual Peripheral Component Interconnect (‘PCI’) flash storage device 118 with separately addressable fast write storage. System 117 may include a storage controller 119. In one embodiment, storage controller 119A-D may be a CPU, ASIC, FPGA, or any other circuitry that may implement control structures necessary according to the present disclosure. In one embodiment, system 117 includes flash memory devices (e.g., including flash memory devices 120 a-n), operatively coupled to various channels of the storage device controller 119. Flash memory devices 120 a-n may be presented to the controller 119A-D as an addressable collection of Flash pages, erase blocks, and/or control elements sufficient to allow the storage device controller 119A-D to program and retrieve various aspects of the Flash. In one embodiment, storage device controller 119A-D may perform operations on flash memory devices 120A-N including storing and retrieving data content of pages, arranging and erasing any blocks, tracking statistics related to the use and reuse of Flash memory pages, erase blocks, and cells, tracking and predicting error codes and faults within the Flash memory, controlling voltage levels associated with programming and retrieving contents of Flash cells, etc.

In one embodiment, system 117 may include RAM 121 to store separately addressable fast-write data. In one embodiment, RAM 121 may be one or more separate discrete devices. In another embodiment, RAM 121 may be integrated into storage device controller 119A-D or multiple storage device controllers. The RAM 121 may be utilized for other purposes as well, such as temporary program memory for a processing device (e.g., a CPU) in the storage device controller 119.

In one embodiment, system 119A-D may include a stored energy device 122, such as a rechargeable battery or a capacitor. Stored energy device 122 may store energy sufficient to power the storage device controller 119, some amount of the RAM (e.g., RAM 121), and some amount of Flash memory (e.g., Flash memory 120 a-120 n) for sufficient time to write the contents of RAM to Flash memory. In one embodiment, storage device controller 119A-D may write the contents of RAM to Flash Memory if the storage device controller detects loss of external power.

In one embodiment, system 117 includes two data communications links 123 a, 123 b. In one embodiment, data communications links 123 a, 123 b may be PCI interfaces. In another embodiment, data communications links 123 a, 123 b may be based on other communications standards (e.g., HyperTransport, InfiniBand, etc.). Data communications links 123 a, 123 b may be based on non-volatile memory express (‘NVMe’) or NVMe over fabrics (‘NVMf’) specifications that allow external connection to the storage device controller 119A-D from other components in the storage system 117. It should be noted that data communications links may be interchangeably referred to herein as PCI buses for convenience.

System 117 may also include an external power source (not shown), which may be provided over one or both data communications links 123 a, 123 b, or which may be provided separately. An alternative embodiment includes a separate Flash memory (not shown) dedicated for use in storing the content of RAM 121. The storage device controller 119A-D may present a logical device over a PCI bus which may include an addressable fast-write logical device, or a distinct part of the logical address space of the storage device 118, which may be presented as PCI memory or as persistent storage. In one embodiment, operations to store into the device are directed into the RAM 121. On power failure, the storage device controller 119A-D may write stored content associated with the addressable fast-write logical storage to Flash memory (e.g., Flash memory 120 a-n) for long-term persistent storage.

In one embodiment, the logical device may include some presentation of some or all of the content of the Flash memory devices 120 a-n, where that presentation allows a storage system including a storage device 118 (e.g., storage system 117) to directly address Flash memory pages and directly reprogram erase blocks from storage system components that are external to the storage device through the PCI bus. The presentation may also allow one or more of the external components to control and retrieve other aspects of the Flash memory including some or all of: tracking statistics related to use and reuse of Flash memory pages, erase blocks, and cells across all the Flash memory devices; tracking and predicting error codes and faults within and across the Flash memory devices; controlling voltage levels associated with programming and retrieving contents of Flash cells; etc.

In one embodiment, the stored energy device 122 may be sufficient to ensure completion of in-progress operations to the Flash memory devices 107 a-120 n stored energy device 122 may power storage device controller 119A-D and associated Flash memory devices (e.g., 120 a-n) for those operations, as well as for the storing of fast-write RAM to Flash memory. Stored energy device 122 may be used to store accumulated statistics and other parameters kept and tracked by the Flash memory devices 120 a-n and/or the storage device controller 119. Separate capacitors or stored energy devices (such as smaller capacitors near or embedded within the Flash memory devices themselves) may be used for some or all of the operations described herein.

Various schemes may be used to track and optimize the life span of the stored energy component, such as adjusting voltage levels over time, partially discharging the storage energy device 122 to measure corresponding discharge characteristics, etc. If the available energy decreases over time, the effective available capacity of the addressable fast-write storage may be decreased to ensure that it can be written safely based on the currently available stored energy.

FIG. 1D illustrates a third example system 124 for data storage in accordance with some implementations. In one embodiment, system 124 includes storage controllers 125 a, 125 b. In one embodiment, storage controllers 125 a, 125 b are operatively coupled to Dual PCI storage devices 119 a, 119 b and 119 c, 119 d, respectively. Storage controllers 125 a, 125 b may be operatively coupled (e.g., via a storage network 130) to some number of host computers 127 a-n.

In one embodiment, two storage controllers (e.g., 125 a and 125 b) provide storage services, such as a SCS) block storage array, a file server, an object server, a database or data analytics service, etc. The storage controllers 125 a, 125 b may provide services through some number of network interfaces (e.g., 126 a-d) to host computers 127 a-n outside of the storage system 124. Storage controllers 125 a, 125 b may provide integrated services or an application entirely within the storage system 124, forming a converged storage and compute system. The storage controllers 125 a, 125 b may utilize the fast write memory within or across storage devices 119 a-d to journal in progress operations to ensure the operations are not lost on a power failure, storage controller removal, storage controller or storage system shutdown, or some fault of one or more software or hardware components within the storage system 124.

In one embodiment, controllers 125 a, 125 b operate as PCI masters to one or the other PCI buses 128 a, 128 b. In another embodiment, 128 a and 128 b may be based on other communications standards (e.g., HyperTransport, InfiniBand, etc.). Other storage system embodiments may operate storage controllers 125 a, 125 b as multi-masters for both PCI buses 128 a, 128 b. Alternately, a PCI/NVMe/NVMf switching infrastructure or fabric may connect multiple storage controllers. Some storage system embodiments may allow storage devices to communicate with each other directly rather than communicating only with storage controllers. In one embodiment, a storage device controller 119 a may be operable under direction from a storage controller 125 a to synthesize and transfer data to be stored into Flash memory devices from data that has been stored in RAM (e.g., RAM 121 of FIG. 1C). For example, a recalculated version of RAM content may be transferred after a storage controller has determined that an operation has fully committed across the storage system, or when fast-write memory on the device has reached a certain used capacity, or after a certain amount of time, to ensure improve safety of the data or to release addressable fast-write capacity for reuse. This mechanism may be used, for example, to avoid a second transfer over a bus (e.g., 128 a, 128 b) from the storage controllers 125 a, 125 b. In one embodiment, a recalculation may include compressing data, attaching indexing or other metadata, combining multiple data segments together, performing erasure code calculations, etc.

In one embodiment, under direction from a storage controller 125 a, 125 b, a storage device controller 119 a, 119 b may be operable to calculate and transfer data to other storage devices from data stored in RAM (e.g., RAM 121 of FIG. 1C) without involvement of the storage controllers 125 a, 125 b. This operation may be used to mirror data stored in one controller 125 a to another controller 125 b, or it could be used to offload compression, data aggregation, and/or erasure coding calculations and transfers to storage devices to reduce load on storage controllers or the storage controller interface 129 a, 129 b to the PCI bus 128 a, 128 b.

A storage device controller 119A-D may include mechanisms for implementing high availability primitives for use by other parts of a storage system external to the Dual PCI storage device 118. For example, reservation or exclusion primitives may be provided so that, in a storage system with two storage controllers providing a highly available storage service, one storage controller may prevent the other storage controller from accessing or continuing to access the storage device. This could be used, for example, in cases where one controller detects that the other controller is not functioning properly or where the interconnect between the two storage controllers may itself not be functioning properly.

In one embodiment, a storage system for use with Dual PCI direct mapped storage devices with separately addressable fast write storage includes systems that manage erase blocks or groups of erase blocks as allocation units for storing data on behalf of the storage service, or for storing metadata (e.g., indexes, logs, etc.) associated with the storage service, or for proper management of the storage system itself. Flash pages, which may be a few kilobytes in size, may be written as data arrives or as the storage system is to persist data for long intervals of time (e.g., above a defined threshold of time). To commit data more quickly, or to reduce the number of writes to the Flash memory devices, the storage controllers may first write data into the separately addressable fast write storage on one more storage devices.

In one embodiment, the storage controllers 125 a, 125 b may initiate the use of erase blocks within and across storage devices (e.g., 118) in accordance with an age and expected remaining lifespan of the storage devices, or based on other statistics. The storage controllers 125 a, 125 b may initiate garbage collection and data migration data between storage devices in accordance with pages that are no longer needed as well as to manage Flash page and erase block lifespans and to manage overall system performance.

In one embodiment, the storage system 124 may utilize mirroring and/or erasure coding schemes as part of storing data into addressable fast write storage and/or as part of writing data into allocation units associated with erase blocks. Erasure codes may be used across storage devices, as well as within erase blocks or allocation units, or within and across Flash memory devices on a single storage device, to provide redundancy against single or multiple storage device failures or to protect against internal corruptions of Flash memory pages resulting from Flash memory operations or from degradation of Flash memory cells. Mirroring and erasure coding at various levels may be used to recover from multiple types of failures that occur separately or in combination.

The embodiments depicted with reference to FIGS. 2A-G illustrate a storage cluster that stores user data, such as user data originating from one or more user or client systems or other sources external to the storage cluster. The storage cluster distributes user data across storage nodes housed within a chassis, or across multiple chassis, using erasure coding and redundant copies of metadata. Erasure coding refers to a method of data protection or reconstruction in which data is stored across a set of different locations, such as disks, storage nodes or geographic locations. Flash memory is one type of solid-state memory that may be integrated with the embodiments, although the embodiments may be extended to other types of solid-state memory or other storage medium, including non-solid state memory. Control of storage locations and workloads are distributed across the storage locations in a clustered peer-to-peer system. Tasks such as mediating communications between the various storage nodes, detecting when a storage node has become unavailable, and balancing I/Os (inputs and outputs) across the various storage nodes, are all handled on a distributed basis. Data is laid out or distributed across multiple storage nodes in data fragments or stripes that support data recovery in some embodiments. Ownership of data can be reassigned within a cluster, independent of input and output patterns. This architecture described in more detail below allows a storage node in the cluster to fail, with the system remaining operational, since the data can be reconstructed from other storage nodes and thus remain available for input and output operations. In various embodiments, a storage node may be referred to as a cluster node, a blade, or a server.

The storage cluster may be contained within a chassis, i.e., an enclosure housing one or more storage nodes. A mechanism to provide power to each storage node, such as a power distribution bus, and a communication mechanism, such as a communication bus that enables communication between the storage nodes are included within the chassis. The storage cluster can run as an independent system in one location according to some embodiments. In one embodiment, a chassis contains at least two instances of both the power distribution and the communication bus which may be enabled or disabled independently. The internal communication bus may be an Ethernet bus, however, other technologies such as PCIe, InfiniBand, and others, are equally suitable. The chassis provides a port for an external communication bus for enabling communication between multiple chassis, directly or through a switch, and with client systems. The external communication may use a technology such as Ethernet, InfiniBand, Fibre Channel, etc. In some embodiments, the external communication bus uses different communication bus technologies for inter-chassis and client communication. If a switch is deployed within or between chassis, the switch may act as a translation between multiple protocols or technologies. When multiple chassis are connected to define a storage cluster, the storage cluster may be accessed by a client using either proprietary interfaces or standard interfaces such as network file system (‘NFS’), common internet file system (‘CIFS’), small computer system interface (‘SCSI’) or hypertext transfer protocol (‘HTTP’). Translation from the client protocol may occur at the switch, chassis external communication bus or within each storage node. In some embodiments, multiple chassis may be coupled or connected to each other through an aggregator switch. A portion and/or all of the coupled or connected chassis may be designated as a storage cluster. As discussed above, each chassis can have multiple blades, each blade has a media access control (‘MAC’) address, but the storage cluster is presented to an external network as having a single cluster IP address and a single MAC address in some embodiments.

Each storage node may be one or more storage servers and each storage server is connected to one or more non-volatile solid state memory units, which may be referred to as storage units or storage devices. One embodiment includes a single storage server in each storage node and between one to eight non-volatile solid state memory units, however this one example is not meant to be limiting. The storage server may include a processor, DRAM and interfaces for the internal communication bus and power distribution for each of the power buses. Inside the storage node, the interfaces and storage unit share a communication bus, e.g., PCI Express, in some embodiments. The non-volatile solid state memory units may directly access the internal communication bus interface through a storage node communication bus, or request the storage node to access the bus interface. The non-volatile solid state memory unit contains an embedded CPU, solid state storage controller, and a quantity of solid state mass storage, e.g., between 2-32 terabytes (‘TB’) in some embodiments. An embedded volatile storage medium, such as DRAM, and an energy reserve apparatus are included in the non-volatile solid state memory unit. In some embodiments, the energy reserve apparatus is a capacitor, super-capacitor, or battery that enables transferring a subset of DRAM contents to a stable storage medium in the case of power loss. In some embodiments, the non-volatile solid state memory unit is constructed with a storage class memory, such as phase change or magnetoresistive random access memory (‘MRAM’) that substitutes for DRAM and enables a reduced power hold-up apparatus.

One of many features of the storage nodes and non-volatile solid state storage is the ability to proactively rebuild data in a storage cluster. The storage nodes and non-volatile solid state storage can determine when a storage node or non-volatile solid state storage in the storage cluster is unreachable, independent of whether there is an attempt to read data involving that storage node or non-volatile solid state storage. The storage nodes and non-volatile solid state storage then cooperate to recover and rebuild the data in at least partially new locations. This constitutes a proactive rebuild, in that the system rebuilds data without waiting until the data is needed for a read access initiated from a client system employing the storage cluster. These and further details of the storage memory and operation thereof are discussed below.

FIG. 2A is a perspective view of a storage cluster 161, with multiple storage nodes 150 and internal solid-state memory coupled to each storage node to provide network attached storage or storage area network, in accordance with some embodiments. A network attached storage, storage area network, or a storage cluster, or other storage memory, could include one or more storage clusters 161, each having one or more storage nodes 150, in a flexible and reconfigurable arrangement of both the physical components and the amount of storage memory provided thereby. The storage cluster 161 is designed to fit in a rack, and one or more racks can be set up and populated as desired for the storage memory. The storage cluster 161 has a chassis 138 having multiple slots 142. It should be appreciated that chassis 138 may be referred to as a housing, enclosure, or rack unit. In one embodiment, the chassis 138 has fourteen slots 142, although other numbers of slots are readily devised. For example, some embodiments have four slots, eight slots, sixteen slots, thirty-two slots, or other suitable number of slots. Each slot 142 can accommodate one storage node 150 in some embodiments. Chassis 138 includes flaps 148 that can be utilized to mount the chassis 138 on a rack. Fans 144 provide air circulation for cooling of the storage nodes 150 and components thereof, although other cooling components could be used, or an embodiment could be devised without cooling components. A switch fabric 146 couples storage nodes 150 within chassis 138 together and to a network for communication to the memory. In an embodiment depicted in herein, the slots 142 to the left of the switch fabric 146 and fans 144 are shown occupied by storage nodes 150, while the slots 142 to the right of the switch fabric 146 and fans 144 are empty and available for insertion of storage node 150 for illustrative purposes. This configuration is one example, and one or more storage nodes 150 could occupy the slots 142 in various further arrangements. The storage node arrangements need not be sequential or adjacent in some embodiments. Storage nodes 150 are hot pluggable, meaning that a storage node 150 can be inserted into a slot 142 in the chassis 138, or removed from a slot 142, without stopping or powering down the system. Upon insertion or removal of storage node 150 from slot 142, the system automatically reconfigures in order to recognize and adapt to the change. Reconfiguration, in some embodiments, includes restoring redundancy and/or rebalancing data or load.

Each storage node 150 can have multiple components. In the embodiment shown here, the storage node 150 includes a printed circuit board 159 populated by a CPU 156, i.e., processor, a memory 154 coupled to the CPU 156, and a non-volatile solid state storage 152 coupled to the CPU 156, although other mountings and/or components could be used in further embodiments. The memory 154 has instructions which are executed by the CPU 156 and/or data operated on by the CPU 156. As further explained below, the non-volatile solid state storage 152 includes flash or, in further embodiments, other types of solid-state memory.

Referring to FIG. 2A, storage cluster 161 is scalable, meaning that storage capacity with non-uniform storage sizes is readily added, as described above. One or more storage nodes 150 can be plugged into or removed from each chassis and the storage cluster self-configures in some embodiments. Plug-in storage nodes 150, whether installed in a chassis as delivered or later added, can have different sizes. For example, in one embodiment a storage node 150 can have any multiple of 4 TB, e.g., 8 TB, 12 TB, 16 TB, 32 TB, etc. In further embodiments, a storage node 150 could have any multiple of other storage amounts or capacities. Storage capacity of each storage node 150 is broadcast, and influences decisions of how to stripe the data. For maximum storage efficiency, an embodiment can self-configure as wide as possible in the stripe, subject to a predetermined requirement of continued operation with loss of up to one, or up to two, non-volatile solid state storage units 152 or storage nodes 150 within the chassis.

FIG. 2B is a block diagram showing a communications interconnect 173 and power distribution bus 172 coupling multiple storage nodes 150. Referring back to FIG. 2A, the communications interconnect 173 can be included in or implemented with the switch fabric 146 in some embodiments. Where multiple storage clusters 161 occupy a rack, the communications interconnect 173 can be included in or implemented with a top of rack switch, in some embodiments. As illustrated in FIG. 2B, storage cluster 161 is enclosed within a single chassis 138. External port 176 is coupled to storage nodes 150 through communications interconnect 173, while external port 174 is coupled directly to a storage node. External power port 178 is coupled to power distribution bus 172. Storage nodes 150 may include varying amounts and differing capacities of non-volatile solid state storage 152 as described with reference to FIG. 2A. In addition, one or more storage nodes 150 may be a compute only storage node as illustrated in FIG. 2B. Authorities 168 are implemented on the non-volatile solid state storages 152, for example as lists or other data structures stored in memory. In some embodiments the authorities are stored within the non-volatile solid state storage 152 and supported by software executing on a controller or other processor of the non-volatile solid state storage 152. In a further embodiment, authorities 168 are implemented on the storage nodes 150, for example as lists or other data structures stored in the memory 154 and supported by software executing on the CPU 156 of the storage node 150. Authorities 168 control how and where data is stored in the non-volatile solid state storages 152 in some embodiments. This control assists in determining which type of erasure coding scheme is applied to the data, and which storage nodes 150 have which portions of the data. Each authority 168 may be assigned to a non-volatile solid state storage 152. Each authority may control a range of inode numbers, segment numbers, or other data identifiers which are assigned to data by a file system, by the storage nodes 150, or by the non-volatile solid state storage 152, in various embodiments.

Every piece of data, and every piece of metadata, has redundancy in the system in some embodiments. In addition, every piece of data and every piece of metadata has an owner, which may be referred to as an authority. If that authority is unreachable, for example through failure of a storage node, there is a plan of succession for how to find that data or that metadata. In various embodiments, there are redundant copies of authorities 168. Authorities 168 have a relationship to storage nodes 150 and non-volatile solid state storage 152 in some embodiments. Each authority 168, covering a range of data segment numbers or other identifiers of the data, may be assigned to a specific non-volatile solid state storage 152. In some embodiments the authorities 168 for all of such ranges are distributed over the non-volatile solid state storages 152 of a storage cluster. Each storage node 150 has a network port that provides access to the non-volatile solid state storage(s) 152 of that storage node 150. Data can be stored in a segment, which is associated with a segment number and that segment number is an indirection for a configuration of a RAID (redundant array of independent disks) stripe in some embodiments. The assignment and use of the authorities 168 thus establishes an indirection to data. Indirection may be referred to as the ability to reference data indirectly, in this case via an authority 168, in accordance with some embodiments. A segment identifies a set of non-volatile solid state storage 152 and a local identifier into the set of non-volatile solid state storage 152 that may contain data. In some embodiments, the local identifier is an offset into the device and may be reused sequentially by multiple segments. In other embodiments the local identifier is unique for a specific segment and never reused. The offsets in the non-volatile solid state storage 152 are applied to locating data for writing to or reading from the non-volatile solid state storage 152 (in the form of a RAID stripe). Data is striped across multiple units of non-volatile solid state storage 152, which may include or be different from the non-volatile solid state storage 152 having the authority 168 for a particular data segment.

If there is a change in where a particular segment of data is located, e.g., during a data move or a data reconstruction, the authority 168 for that data segment should be consulted, at that non-volatile solid state storage 152 or storage node 150 having that authority 168. In order to locate a particular piece of data, embodiments calculate a hash value for a data segment or apply an inode number or a data segment number. The output of this operation points to a non-volatile solid state storage 152 having the authority 168 for that particular piece of data. In some embodiments there are two stages to this operation. The first stage maps an entity identifier (ID), e.g., a segment number, inode number, or directory number to an authority identifier. This mapping may include a calculation such as a hash or a bit mask. The second stage is mapping the authority identifier to a particular non-volatile solid state storage 152, which may be done through an explicit mapping. The operation is repeatable, so that when the calculation is performed, the result of the calculation repeatably and reliably points to a particular non-volatile solid state storage 152 having that authority 168. The operation may include the set of reachable storage nodes as input. If the set of reachable non-volatile solid state storage units changes the optimal set changes. In some embodiments, the persisted value is the current assignment (which is always true) and the calculated value is the target assignment the cluster will attempt to reconfigure towards. This calculation may be used to determine the optimal non-volatile solid state storage 152 for an authority in the presence of a set of non-volatile solid state storage 152 that are reachable and constitute the same cluster. The calculation also determines an ordered set of peer non-volatile solid state storage 152 that will also record the authority to non-volatile solid state storage mapping so that the authority may be determined even if the assigned non-volatile solid state storage is unreachable. A duplicate or substitute authority 168 may be consulted if a specific authority 168 is unavailable in some embodiments.

With reference to FIGS. 2A and 2B, two of the many tasks of the CPU 156 on a storage node 150 are to break up write data, and reassemble read data. When the system has determined that data is to be written, the authority 168 for that data is located as above. When the segment ID for data is already determined the request to write is forwarded to the non-volatile solid state storage 152 currently determined to be the host of the authority 168 determined from the segment. The host CPU 156 of the storage node 150, on which the non-volatile solid state storage 152 and corresponding authority 168 reside, then breaks up or shards the data and transmits the data out to various non-volatile solid state storage 152. The transmitted data is written as a data stripe in accordance with an erasure coding scheme. In some embodiments, data is requested to be pulled, and in other embodiments, data is pushed. In reverse, when data is read, the authority 168 for the segment ID containing the data is located as described above. The host CPU 156 of the storage node 150 on which the non-volatile solid state storage 152 and corresponding authority 168 reside requests the data from the non-volatile solid state storage and corresponding storage nodes pointed to by the authority. In some embodiments the data is read from flash storage as a data stripe. The host CPU 156 of storage node 150 then reassembles the read data, correcting any errors (if present) according to the appropriate erasure coding scheme, and forwards the reassembled data to the network. In further embodiments, some or all of these tasks can be handled in the non-volatile solid state storage 152. In some embodiments, the segment host requests the data be sent to storage node 150 by requesting pages from storage and then sending the data to the storage node making the original request.

In some systems, for example in UNIX-style file systems, data is handled with an index node or inode, which specifies a data structure that represents an object in a file system. The object could be a file or a directory, for example. Metadata may accompany the object, as attributes such as permission data and a creation timestamp, among other attributes. A segment number could be assigned to all or a portion of such an object in a file system. In other systems, data segments are handled with a segment number assigned elsewhere. For purposes of discussion, the unit of distribution is an entity, and an entity can be a file, a directory or a segment. That is, entities are units of data or metadata stored by a storage system. Entities are grouped into sets called authorities. Each authority has an authority owner, which is a storage node that has the exclusive right to update the entities in the authority. In other words, a storage node contains the authority, and that the authority, in turn, contains entities.

A segment is a logical container of data in accordance with some embodiments. A segment is an address space between medium address space and physical flash locations, i.e., the data segment number, are in this address space. Segments may also contain meta-data, which enable data redundancy to be restored (rewritten to different flash locations or devices) without the involvement of higher level software. In one embodiment, an internal format of a segment contains client data and medium mappings to determine the position of that data. Each data segment is protected, e.g., from memory and other failures, by breaking the segment into a number of data and parity shards, where applicable. The data and parity shards are distributed, i.e., striped, across non-volatile solid state storage 152 coupled to the host CPUs 156 (See FIGS. 2E and 2G) in accordance with an erasure coding scheme. Usage of the term segments refers to the container and its place in the address space of segments in some embodiments. Usage of the term stripe refers to the same set of shards as a segment and includes how the shards are distributed along with redundancy or parity information in accordance with some embodiments.

A series of address-space transformations takes place across an entire storage system. At the top are the directory entries (file names) which link to an inode. Inodes point into medium address space, where data is logically stored. Medium addresses may be mapped through a series of indirect mediums to spread the load of large files, or implement data services like deduplication or snapshots. Medium addresses may be mapped through a series of indirect mediums to spread the load of large files, or implement data services like deduplication or snapshots. Segment addresses are then translated into physical flash locations. Physical flash locations have an address range bounded by the amount of flash in the system in accordance with some embodiments. Medium addresses and segment addresses are logical containers, and in some embodiments use a 128 bit or larger identifier so as to be practically infinite, with a likelihood of reuse calculated as longer than the expected life of the system. Addresses from logical containers are allocated in a hierarchical fashion in some embodiments. Initially, each non-volatile solid state storage unit 152 may be assigned a range of address space. Within this assigned range, the non-volatile solid state storage 152 is able to allocate addresses without synchronization with other non-volatile solid state storage 152.

Data and metadata is stored by a set of underlying storage layouts that are optimized for varying workload patterns and storage devices. These layouts incorporate multiple redundancy schemes, compression formats and index algorithms. Some of these layouts store information about authorities and authority masters, while others store file metadata and file data. The redundancy schemes include error correction codes that tolerate corrupted bits within a single storage device (such as a NAND flash chip), erasure codes that tolerate the failure of multiple storage nodes, and replication schemes that tolerate data center or regional failures. In some embodiments, low density parity check (‘LDPC’) code is used within a single storage unit. Reed-Solomon encoding is used within a storage cluster, and mirroring is used within a storage grid in some embodiments. Metadata may be stored using an ordered log structured index (such as a Log Structured Merge Tree), and large data may not be stored in a log structured layout.

In order to maintain consistency across multiple copies of an entity, the storage nodes agree implicitly on two things through calculations: (1) the authority that contains the entity, and (2) the storage node that contains the authority. The assignment of entities to authorities can be done by pseudo randomly assigning entities to authorities, by splitting entities into ranges based upon an externally produced key, or by placing a single entity into each authority. Examples of pseudorandom schemes are linear hashing and the Replication Under Scalable Hashing (‘RUSH’) family of hashes, including Controlled Replication Under Scalable Hashing (‘CRUSH’). In some embodiments, pseudo-random assignment is utilized only for assigning authorities to nodes because the set of nodes can change. The set of authorities cannot change so any subjective function may be applied in these embodiments. Some placement schemes automatically place authorities on storage nodes, while other placement schemes rely on an explicit mapping of authorities to storage nodes. In some embodiments, a pseudorandom scheme is utilized to map from each authority to a set of candidate authority owners. A pseudorandom data distribution function related to CRUSH may assign authorities to storage nodes and create a list of where the authorities are assigned. Each storage node has a copy of the pseudorandom data distribution function, and can arrive at the same calculation for distributing, and later finding or locating an authority. Each of the pseudorandom schemes requires the reachable set of storage nodes as input in some embodiments in order to conclude the same target nodes. Once an entity has been placed in an authority, the entity may be stored on physical devices so that no expected failure will lead to unexpected data loss. In some embodiments, rebalancing algorithms attempt to store the copies of all entities within an authority in the same layout and on the same set of machines.

Examples of expected failures include device failures, stolen machines, datacenter fires, and regional disasters, such as nuclear or geological events. Different failures lead to different levels of acceptable data loss. In some embodiments, a stolen storage node impacts neither the security nor the reliability of the system, while depending on system configuration, a regional event could lead to no loss of data, a few seconds or minutes of lost updates, or even complete data loss.

In the embodiments, the placement of data for storage redundancy is independent of the placement of authorities for data consistency. In some embodiments, storage nodes that contain authorities do not contain any persistent storage. Instead, the storage nodes are connected to non-volatile solid state storage units that do not contain authorities. The communications interconnect between storage nodes and non-volatile solid state storage units consists of multiple communication technologies and has non-uniform performance and fault tolerance characteristics. In some embodiments, as mentioned above, non-volatile solid state storage units are connected to storage nodes via PCI express, storage nodes are connected together within a single chassis using Ethernet backplane, and chassis are connected together to form a storage cluster. Storage clusters are connected to clients using Ethernet or fiber channel in some embodiments. If multiple storage clusters are configured into a storage grid, the multiple storage clusters are connected using the Internet or other long-distance networking links, such as a “metro scale” link or private link that does not traverse the internet.

Authority owners have the exclusive right to modify entities, to migrate entities from one non-volatile solid state storage unit to another non-volatile solid state storage unit, and to add and remove copies of entities. This allows for maintaining the redundancy of the underlying data. When an authority owner fails, is going to be decommissioned, or is overloaded, the authority is transferred to a new storage node. Transient failures make it non-trivial to ensure that all non-faulty machines agree upon the new authority location. The ambiguity that arises due to transient failures can be achieved automatically by a consensus protocol such as Paxos, hot-warm failover schemes, via manual intervention by a remote system administrator, or by a local hardware administrator (such as by physically removing the failed machine from the cluster, or pressing a button on the failed machine). In some embodiments, a consensus protocol is used, and failover is automatic. If too many failures or replication events occur in too short a time period, the system goes into a self-preservation mode and halts replication and data movement activities until an administrator intervenes in accordance with some embodiments.

As authorities are transferred between storage nodes and authority owners update entities in their authorities, the system transfers messages between the storage nodes and non-volatile solid state storage units. With regard to persistent messages, messages that have different purposes are of different types. Depending on the type of the message, the system maintains different ordering and durability guarantees. As the persistent messages are being processed, the messages are temporarily stored in multiple durable and non-durable storage hardware technologies. In some embodiments, messages are stored in RAM, NVRAM and on NAND flash devices, and a variety of protocols are used in order to make efficient use of each storage medium. Latency-sensitive client requests may be persisted in replicated NVRAM, and then later NAND, while background rebalancing operations are persisted directly to NAND.

Persistent messages are persistently stored prior to being transmitted. This allows the system to continue to serve client requests despite failures and component replacement. Although many hardware components contain unique identifiers that are visible to system administrators, manufacturer, hardware supply chain and ongoing monitoring quality control infrastructure, applications running on top of the infrastructure address virtualize addresses. These virtualized addresses do not change over the lifetime of the storage system, regardless of component failures and replacements. This allows each component of the storage system to be replaced over time without reconfiguration or disruptions of client request processing, i.e., the system supports non-disruptive upgrades.

In some embodiments, the virtualized addresses are stored with sufficient redundancy. A continuous monitoring system correlates hardware and software status and the hardware identifiers. This allows detection and prediction of failures due to faulty components and manufacturing details. The monitoring system also enables the proactive transfer of authorities and entities away from impacted devices before failure occurs by removing the component from the critical path in some embodiments.

FIG. 2C is a multiple level block diagram, showing contents of a storage node 150 and contents of a non-volatile solid state storage 152 of the storage node 150. Data is communicated to and from the storage node 150 by a network interface controller (‘NIC’) 202 in some embodiments. Each storage node 150 has a CPU 156, and one or more non-volatile solid state storage 152, as discussed above. Moving down one level in FIG. 2C, each non-volatile solid state storage 152 has a relatively fast non-volatile solid state memory, such as nonvolatile random access memory (‘NVRAM’) 204, and flash memory 206. In some embodiments, NVRAM 204 may be a component that does not require program/erase cycles (DRAM, MRAM, PCM), and can be a memory that can support being written vastly more often than the memory is read from. Moving down another level in FIG. 2C, the NVRAM 204 is implemented in one embodiment as high speed volatile memory, such as dynamic random access memory (DRAM) 216, backed up by energy reserve 218. Energy reserve 218 provides sufficient electrical power to keep the DRAM 216 powered long enough for contents to be transferred to the flash memory 206 in the event of power failure. In some embodiments, energy reserve 218 is a capacitor, super-capacitor, battery, or other device, that supplies a suitable supply of energy sufficient to enable the transfer of the contents of DRAM 216 to a stable storage medium in the case of power loss. The flash memory 206 is implemented as multiple flash dies 222, which may be referred to as packages of flash dies 222 or an array of flash dies 222. It should be appreciated that the flash dies 222 could be packaged in any number of ways, with a single die per package, multiple dies per package (i.e. multichip packages), in hybrid packages, as bare dies on a printed circuit board or other substrate, as encapsulated dies, etc. In the embodiment shown, the non-volatile solid state storage 152 has a controller 212 or other processor, and an input output (I/O) port 210 coupled to the controller 212. I/O port 210 is coupled to the CPU 156 and/or the network interface controller 202 of the flash storage node 150. Flash input output (I/O) port 220 is coupled to the flash dies 222, and a direct memory access unit (DMA) 214 is coupled to the controller 212, the DRAM 216 and the flash dies 222. In the embodiment shown, the I/O port 210, controller 212, DMA unit 214 and flash I/O port 220 are implemented on a programmable logic device (‘PLD’) 208, e.g., a field programmable gate array (FPGA). In this embodiment, each flash die 222 has pages, organized as sixteen kB (kilobyte) pages 224, and a register 226 through which data can be written to or read from the flash die 222. In further embodiments, other types of solid-state memory are used in place of, or in addition to flash memory illustrated within flash die 222.

Storage clusters 161, in various embodiments as disclosed herein, can be contrasted with storage arrays in general. The storage nodes 150 are part of a collection that creates the storage cluster 161. Each storage node 150 owns a slice of data and computing required to provide the data. Multiple storage nodes 150 cooperate to store and retrieve the data. Storage memory or storage devices, as used in storage arrays in general, are less involved with processing and manipulating the data. Storage memory or storage devices in a storage array receive commands to read, write, or erase data. The storage memory or storage devices in a storage array are not aware of a larger system in which they are embedded, or what the data means. Storage memory or storage devices in storage arrays can include various types of storage memory, such as RAM, solid state drives, hard disk drives, etc. The storage units 152 described herein have multiple interfaces active simultaneously and serving multiple purposes. In some embodiments, some of the functionality of a storage node 150 is shifted into a storage unit 152, transforming the storage unit 152 into a combination of storage unit 152 and storage node 150. Placing computing (relative to storage data) into the storage unit 152 places this computing closer to the data itself. The various system embodiments have a hierarchy of storage node layers with different capabilities. By contrast, in a storage array, a controller owns and knows everything about all of the data that the controller manages in a shelf or storage devices. In a storage cluster 161, as described herein, multiple controllers in multiple storage units 152 and/or storage nodes 150 cooperate in various ways (e.g., for erasure coding, data sharding, metadata communication and redundancy, storage capacity expansion or contraction, data recovery, and so on).

FIG. 2D shows a storage server environment, which uses embodiments of the storage nodes 150 and storage units 152 of FIGS. 2A-C. In this version, each storage unit 152 has a processor such as controller 212 (see FIG. 2C), an FPGA (field programmable gate array), flash memory 206, and NVRAM 204 (which is super-capacitor backed DRAM 216, see FIGS. 2B and 2C) on a PCIe (peripheral component interconnect express) board in a chassis 138 (see FIG. 2A). The storage unit 152 may be implemented as a single board containing storage, and may be the largest tolerable failure domain inside the chassis. In some embodiments, up to two storage units 152 may fail and the device will continue with no data loss.

The physical storage is divided into named regions based on application usage in some embodiments. The NVRAM 204 is a contiguous block of reserved memory in the storage unit 152 DRAM 216, and is backed by NAND flash. NVRAM 204 is logically divided into multiple memory regions written for two as spool (e.g., spool region). Space within the NVRAM 204 spools is managed by each authority 168 independently. Each device provides an amount of storage space to each authority 168. That authority 168 further manages lifetimes and allocations within that space. Examples of a spool include distributed transactions or notions. When the primary power to a storage unit 152 fails, onboard super-capacitors provide a short duration of power hold up. During this holdup interval, the contents of the NVRAM 204 are flushed to flash memory 206. On the next power-on, the contents of the NVRAM 204 are recovered from the flash memory 206.

As for the storage unit controller, the responsibility of the logical “controller” is distributed across each of the blades containing authorities 168. This distribution of logical control is shown in FIG. 2D as a host controller 242, mid-tier controller 244 and storage unit controller(s) 246. Management of the control plane and the storage plane are treated independently, although parts may be physically co-located on the same blade. Each authority 168 effectively serves as an independent controller. Each authority 168 provides its own data and metadata structures, its own background workers, and maintains its own lifecycle.

FIG. 2E is a blade 252 hardware block diagram, showing a control plane 254, compute and storage planes 256, 258, and authorities 168 interacting with underlying physical resources, using embodiments of the storage nodes 150 and storage units 152 of FIGS. 2A-C in the storage server environment of FIG. 2D. The control plane 254 is partitioned into a number of authorities 168 which can use the compute resources in the compute plane 256 to run on any of the blades 252. The storage plane 258 is partitioned into a set of devices, each of which provides access to flash 206 and NVRAM 204 resources.

In the compute and storage planes 256, 258 of FIG. 2E, the authorities 168 interact with the underlying physical resources (i.e., devices). From the point of view of an authority 168, its resources are striped over all of the physical devices. From the point of view of a device, it provides resources to all authorities 168, irrespective of where the authorities happen to run. Each authority 168 has allocated or has been allocated one or more partitions 260 of storage memory in the storage units 152, e.g. partitions 260 in flash memory 206 and NVRAM 204. Each authority 168 uses those allocated partitions 260 that belong to it, for writing or reading user data. Authorities can be associated with differing amounts of physical storage of the system. For example, one authority 168 could have a larger number of partitions 260 or larger sized partitions 260 in one or more storage units 152 than one or more other authorities 168.

FIG. 2F depicts elasticity software layers in blades 252 of a storage cluster, in accordance with some embodiments. In the elasticity structure, elasticity software is symmetric, i.e., each blade's compute module 270 runs the three identical layers of processes depicted in FIG. 2F. Storage managers 274 execute read and write requests from other blades 252 for data and metadata stored in local storage unit 152 NVRAM 204 and flash 206. Authorities 168 fulfill client requests by issuing the necessary reads and writes to the blades 252 on whose storage units 152 the corresponding data or metadata resides. Endpoints 272 parse client connection requests received from switch fabric 146 supervisory software, relay the client connection requests to the authorities 168 responsible for fulfillment, and relay the authorities' 168 responses to clients. The symmetric three-layer structure enables the storage system's high degree of concurrency. Elasticity scales out efficiently and reliably in these embodiments. In addition, elasticity implements a unique scale-out technique that balances work evenly across all resources regardless of client access pattern, and maximizes concurrency by eliminating much of the need for inter-blade coordination that typically occurs with conventional distributed locking.

Still referring to FIG. 2F, authorities 168 running in the compute modules 270 of a blade 252 perform the internal operations required to fulfill client requests. One feature of elasticity is that authorities 168 are stateless, i.e., they cache active data and metadata in their own blades' 252 DRAMs for fast access, but the authorities store every update in their NVRAM 204 partitions on three separate blades 252 until the update has been written to flash 206. All the storage system writes to NVRAM 204 are in triplicate to partitions on three separate blades 252 in some embodiments. With triple-mirrored NVRAM 204 and persistent storage protected by parity and Reed-Solomon RAID checksums, the storage system can survive concurrent failure of two blades 252 with no loss of data, metadata, or access to either.

Because authorities 168 are stateless, they can migrate between blades 252. Each authority 168 has a unique identifier. NVRAM 204 and flash 206 partitions are associated with authorities' 168 identifiers, not with the blades 252 on which they are running in some. Thus, when an authority 168 migrates, the authority 168 continues to manage the same storage partitions from its new location. When a new blade 252 is installed in an embodiment of the storage cluster, the system automatically rebalances load by: partitioning the new blade's 252 storage for use by the system's authorities 168, migrating selected authorities 168 to the new blade 252, starting endpoints 272 on the new blade 252 and including them in the switch fabric's 146 client connection distribution algorithm.

From their new locations, migrated authorities 168 persist the contents of their NVRAM 204 partitions on flash 206, process read and write requests from other authorities 168, and fulfill the client requests that endpoints 272 direct to them. Similarly, if a blade 252 fails or is removed, the system redistributes its authorities 168 among the system's remaining blades 252. The redistributed authorities 168 continue to perform their original functions from their new locations.

FIG. 2G depicts authorities 168 and storage resources in blades 252 of a storage cluster, in accordance with some embodiments. Each authority 168 is exclusively responsible for a partition of the flash 206 and NVRAM 204 on each blade 252. The authority 168 manages the content and integrity of its partitions independently of other authorities 168. Authorities 168 compress incoming data and preserve it temporarily in their NVRAM 204 partitions, and then consolidate, RAID-protect, and persist the data in segments of the storage in their flash 206 partitions. As the authorities 168 write data to flash 206, storage managers 274 perform the necessary flash translation to optimize write performance and maximize media longevity. In the background, authorities 168 “garbage collect,” or reclaim space occupied by data that clients have made obsolete by overwriting the data. It should be appreciated that since authorities' 168 partitions are disjoint, there is no need for distributed locking to execute client and writes or to perform background functions.

The embodiments described herein may utilize various software, communication and/or networking protocols. In addition, the configuration of the hardware and/or software may be adjusted to accommodate various protocols. For example, the embodiments may utilize Active Directory, which is a database based system that provides authentication, directory, policy, and other services in a WINDOWS™ environment. In these embodiments, LDAP (Lightweight Directory Access Protocol) is one example application protocol for querying and modifying items in directory service providers such as Active Directory. In some embodiments, a network lock manager (‘NLM’) is utilized as a facility that works in cooperation with the Network File System (‘NFS’) to provide a System V style of advisory file and record locking over a network. The Server Message Block (‘SMB’) protocol, one version of which is also known as Common Internet File System (‘CIFS’), may be integrated with the storage systems discussed herein. SMP operates as an application-layer network protocol typically used for providing shared access to files, printers, and serial ports and miscellaneous communications between nodes on a network. SMB also provides an authenticated inter-process communication mechanism. AMAZON™ S3 (Simple Storage Service) is a web service offered by Amazon Web Services, and the systems described herein may interface with Amazon S3 through web services interfaces (REST (representational state transfer), SOAP (simple object access protocol), and BitTorrent). A RESTful API (application programming interface) breaks down a transaction to create a series of small modules. Each module addresses a particular underlying part of the transaction. The control or permissions provided with these embodiments, especially for object data, may include utilization of an access control list (‘ACL’). The ACL is a list of permissions attached to an object and the ACL specifies which users or system processes are granted access to objects, as well as what operations are allowed on given objects. The systems may utilize Internet Protocol version 6 (‘IPv6’), as well as IPv4, for the communications protocol that provides an identification and location system for computers on networks and routes traffic across the Internet. The routing of packets between networked systems may include Equal-cost multi-path routing (‘ECMP’), which is a routing strategy where next-hop packet forwarding to a single destination can occur over multiple “best paths” which tie for top place in routing metric calculations. Multi-path routing can be used in conjunction with most routing protocols, because it is a per-hop decision limited to a single router. The software may support Multi-tenancy, which is an architecture in which a single instance of a software application serves multiple customers. Each customer may be referred to as a tenant. Tenants may be given the ability to customize some parts of the application, but may not customize the application's code, in some embodiments. The embodiments may maintain audit logs. An audit log is a document that records an event in a computing system. In addition to documenting what resources were accessed, audit log entries typically include destination and source addresses, a timestamp, and user login information for compliance with various regulations. The embodiments may support various key management policies, such as encryption key rotation. In addition, the system may support dynamic root passwords or some variation dynamically changing passwords.

FIG. 3A sets forth a diagram of a storage system 306 that is coupled for data communications with a cloud services provider 302 in accordance with some embodiments of the present disclosure. Although depicted in less detail, the storage system 306 depicted in FIG. 3A may be similar to the storage systems described above with reference to FIGS. 1A-1D and FIGS. 2A-2G. In some embodiments, the storage system 306 depicted in FIG. 3A may be embodied as a storage system that includes imbalanced active/active controllers, as a storage system that includes balanced active/active controllers, as a storage system that includes active/active controllers where less than all of each controller's resources are utilized such that each controller has reserve resources that may be used to support failover, as a storage system that includes fully active/active controllers, as a storage system that includes dataset-segregated controllers, as a storage system that includes dual-layer architectures with front-end controllers and back-end integrated storage controllers, as a storage system that includes scale-out clusters of dual-controller arrays, as well as combinations of such embodiments.

In the example depicted in FIG. 3A, the storage system 306 is coupled to the cloud services provider 302 via a data communications link 304. The data communications link 304 may be embodied as a dedicated data communications link, as a data communications pathway that is provided through the use of one or data communications networks such as a wide area network (‘WAN’) or local area network (‘LAN’), or as some other mechanism capable of transporting digital information between the storage system 306 and the cloud services provider 302. Such a data communications link 304 may be fully wired, fully wireless, or some aggregation of wired and wireless data communications pathways. In such an example, digital information may be exchanged between the storage system 306 and the cloud services provider 302 via the data communications link 304 using one or more data communications protocols. For example, digital information may be exchanged between the storage system 306 and the cloud services provider 302 via the data communications link 304 using the handheld device transfer protocol (‘HDTP’), hypertext transfer protocol (‘HTTP’), internet protocol (‘IP’), real-time transfer protocol (‘RTP’), transmission control protocol (‘TCP’), user datagram protocol (‘UDP’), wireless application protocol (‘WAP’), or other protocol.

The cloud services provider 302 depicted in FIG. 3A may be embodied, for example, as a system and computing environment that provides services to users of the cloud services provider 302 through the sharing of computing resources via the data communications link 304. The cloud services provider 302 may provide on-demand access to a shared pool of configurable computing resources such as computer networks, servers, storage, applications and services, and so on. The shared pool of configurable resources may be rapidly provisioned and released to a user of the cloud services provider 302 with minimal management effort. Generally, the user of the cloud services provider 302 is unaware of the exact computing resources utilized by the cloud services provider 302 to provide the services. Although in many cases such a cloud services provider 302 may be accessible via the Internet, readers of skill in the art will recognize that any system that abstracts the use of shared resources to provide services to a user through any data communications link may be considered a cloud services provider 302.

In the example depicted in FIG. 3A, the cloud services provider 302 may be configured to provide a variety of services to the storage system 306 and users of the storage system 306 through the implementation of various service models. For example, the cloud services provider 302 may be configured to provide services to the storage system 306 and users of the storage system 306 through the implementation of an infrastructure as a service (‘IaaS’) service model where the cloud services provider 302 offers computing infrastructure such as virtual machines and other resources as a service to subscribers. In addition, the cloud services provider 302 may be configured to provide services to the storage system 306 and users of the storage system 306 through the implementation of a platform as a service (‘PaaS’) service model where the cloud services provider 302 offers a development environment to application developers. Such a development environment may include, for example, an operating system, programming-language execution environment, database, web server, or other components that may be utilized by application developers to develop and run software solutions on a cloud platform. Furthermore, the cloud services provider 302 may be configured to provide services to the storage system 306 and users of the storage system 306 through the implementation of a software as a service (‘SaaS’) service model where the cloud services provider 302 offers application software, databases, as well as the platforms that are used to run the applications to the storage system 306 and users of the storage system 306, providing the storage system 306 and users of the storage system 306 with on-demand software and eliminating the need to install and run the application on local computers, which may simplify maintenance and support of the application. The cloud services provider 302 may be further configured to provide services to the storage system 306 and users of the storage system 306 through the implementation of an authentication as a service (‘AaaS’) service model where the cloud services provider 302 offers authentication services that can be used to secure access to applications, data sources, or other resources. The cloud services provider 302 may also be configured to provide services to the storage system 306 and users of the storage system 306 through the implementation of a storage as a service model where the cloud services provider 302 offers access to its storage infrastructure for use by the storage system 306 and users of the storage system 306. Readers will appreciate that the cloud services provider 302 may be configured to provide additional services to the storage system 306 and users of the storage system 306 through the implementation of additional service models, as the service models described above are included only for explanatory purposes and in no way represent a limitation of the services that may be offered by the cloud services provider 302 or a limitation as to the service models that may be implemented by the cloud services provider 302.

In the example depicted in FIG. 3A, the cloud services provider 302 may be embodied, for example, as a private cloud, as a public cloud, or as a combination of a private cloud and public cloud. In an embodiment in which the cloud services provider 302 is embodied as a private cloud, the cloud services provider 302 may be dedicated to providing services to a single organization rather than providing services to multiple organizations. In an embodiment where the cloud services provider 302 is embodied as a public cloud, the cloud services provider 302 may provide services to multiple organizations. Public cloud and private cloud deployment models may differ and may come with various advantages and disadvantages. For example, because a public cloud deployment involves the sharing of a computing infrastructure across different organization, such a deployment may not be ideal for organizations with security concerns, mission-critical workloads, uptime requirements demands, and so on. While a private cloud deployment can address some of these issues, a private cloud deployment may require on-premises staff to manage the private cloud. In still alternative embodiments, the cloud services provider 302 may be embodied as a mix of a private and public cloud services with a hybrid cloud deployment.

Although not explicitly depicted in FIG. 3A, readers will appreciate that additional hardware components and additional software components may be necessary to facilitate the delivery of cloud services to the storage system 306 and users of the storage system 306. For example, the storage system 306 may be coupled to (or even include) a cloud storage gateway. Such a cloud storage gateway may be embodied, for example, as hardware-based or software-based appliance that is located on premise with the storage system 306. Such a cloud storage gateway may operate as a bridge between local applications that are executing on the storage array 306 and remote, cloud-based storage that is utilized by the storage array 306. Through the use of a cloud storage gateway, organizations may move primary iSCSI or NAS to the cloud services provider 302, thereby enabling the organization to save space on their on-premises storage systems. Such a cloud storage gateway may be configured to emulate a disk array, a block-based device, a file server, or other storage system that can translate the SCSI commands, file server commands, or other appropriate command into REST-space protocols that facilitate communications with the cloud services provider 302.

In order to enable the storage system 306 and users of the storage system 306 to make use of the services provided by the cloud services provider 302, a cloud migration process may take place during which data, applications, or other elements from an organization's local systems (or even from another cloud environment) are moved to the cloud services provider 302. In order to successfully migrate data, applications, or other elements to the cloud services provider's 302 environment, middleware such as a cloud migration tool may be utilized to bridge gaps between the cloud services provider's 302 environment and an organization's environment. Such cloud migration tools may also be configured to address potentially high network costs and long transfer times associated with migrating large volumes of data to the cloud services provider 302, as well as addressing security concerns associated with sensitive data to the cloud services provider 302 over data communications networks. In order to further enable the storage system 306 and users of the storage system 306 to make use of the services provided by the cloud services provider 302, a cloud orchestrator may also be used to arrange and coordinate automated tasks in pursuit of creating a consolidated process or workflow. Such a cloud orchestrator may perform tasks such as configuring various components, whether those components are cloud components or on-premises components, as well as managing the interconnections between such components. The cloud orchestrator can simplify the inter-component communication and connections to ensure that links are correctly configured and maintained.

In the example depicted in FIG. 3A, and as described briefly above, the cloud services provider 302 may be configured to provide services to the storage system 306 and users of the storage system 306 through the usage of a SaaS service model where the cloud services provider 302 offers application software, databases, as well as the platforms that are used to run the applications to the storage system 306 and users of the storage system 306, providing the storage system 306 and users of the storage system 306 with on-demand software and eliminating the need to install and run the application on local computers, which may simplify maintenance and support of the application. Such applications may take many forms in accordance with various embodiments of the present disclosure. For example, the cloud services provider 302 may be configured to provide access to data analytics applications to the storage system 306 and users of the storage system 306. Such data analytics applications may be configured, for example, to receive telemetry data phoned home by the storage system 306. Such telemetry data may describe various operating characteristics of the storage system 306 and may be analyzed, for example, to determine the health of the storage system 306, to identify workloads that are executing on the storage system 306, to predict when the storage system 306 will run out of various resources, to recommend configuration changes, hardware or software upgrades, workflow migrations, or other actions that may improve the operation of the storage system 306.

The cloud services provider 302 may also be configured to provide access to virtualized computing environments to the storage system 306 and users of the storage system 306. Such virtualized computing environments may be embodied, for example, as a virtual machine or other virtualized computer hardware platforms, virtual storage devices, virtualized computer network resources, and so on. Examples of such virtualized environments can include virtual machines that are created to emulate an actual computer, virtualized desktop environments that separate a logical desktop from a physical machine, virtualized file systems that allow uniform access to different types of concrete file systems, and many others.

For further explanation, FIG. 3B sets forth a diagram of a storage system 306 in accordance with some embodiments of the present disclosure. Although depicted in less detail, the storage system 306 depicted in FIG. 3B may be similar to the storage systems described above with reference to FIGS. 1A-1D and FIGS. 2A-2G as the storage system may include many of the components described above.

The storage system 306 depicted in FIG. 3B may include storage resources 308, which may be embodied in many forms. For example, in some embodiments the storage resources 308 can include nano-RAM or another form of nonvolatile random access memory that utilizes carbon nanotubes deposited on a substrate. In some embodiments, the storage resources 308 may include 3D crosspoint non-volatile memory in which bit storage is based on a change of bulk resistance, in conjunction with a stackable cross-gridded data access array. In some embodiments, the storage resources 308 may include flash memory, including single-level cell (‘SLC’) NAND flash, multi-level cell (‘MLC’) NAND flash, triple-level cell (‘TLC’) NAND flash, quad-level cell (‘QLC’) NAND flash, and others. In some embodiments, the storage resources 308 may include non-volatile magnetoresistive random-access memory (‘MRAM’), including spin transfer torque (‘STT’) MRAM, in which data is stored through the use of magnetic storage elements. In some embodiments, the example storage resources 308 may include non-volatile phase-change memory (‘PCM’) that may have the ability to hold multiple bits in a single cell as cells can achieve a number of distinct intermediary states. In some embodiments, the storage resources 308 may include quantum memory that allows for the storage and retrieval of photonic quantum information. In some embodiments, the example storage resources 308 may include resistive random-access memory (‘ReRAM’) in which data is stored by changing the resistance across a dielectric solid-state material. In some embodiments, the storage resources 308 may include storage class memory (‘SCM’) in which solid-state nonvolatile memory may be manufactured at a high density using some combination of sub-lithographic patterning techniques, multiple bits per cell, multiple layers of devices, and so on. Readers will appreciate that other forms of computer memories and storage devices may be utilized by the storage systems described above, including DRAM, SRAM, EEPROM, universal memory, and many others. The storage resources 308 depicted in FIG. 3A may be embodied in a variety of form factors, including but not limited to, dual in-line memory modules (‘DIMMs’), non-volatile dual in-line memory modules (‘NVDIMMs’), M.2, U.2, and others.

The example storage system 306 depicted in FIG. 3B may implement a variety of storage architectures. For example, storage systems in accordance with some embodiments of the present disclosure may utilize block storage where data is stored in blocks, and each block essentially acts as an individual hard drive. Storage systems in accordance with some embodiments of the present disclosure may utilize object storage, where data is managed as objects. Each object may include the data itself, a variable amount of metadata, and a globally unique identifier, where object storage can be implemented at multiple levels (e.g., device level, system level, interface level). Storage systems in accordance with some embodiments of the present disclosure utilize file storage in which data is stored in a hierarchical structure. Such data may be saved in files and folders, and presented to both the system storing it and the system retrieving it in the same format.

The example storage system 306 depicted in FIG. 3B may be embodied as a storage system in which additional storage resources can be added through the use of a scale-up model, additional storage resources can be added through the use of a scale-out model, or through some combination thereof. In a scale-up model, additional storage may be added by adding additional storage devices. In a scale-out model, however, additional storage nodes may be added to a cluster of storage nodes, where such storage nodes can include additional processing resources, additional networking resources, and so on.

The storage system 306 depicted in FIG. 3B also includes communications resources 310 that may be useful in facilitating data communications between components within the storage system 306, as well as data communications between the storage system 306 and computing devices that are outside of the storage system 306. The communications resources 310 may be configured to utilize a variety of different protocols and data communication fabrics to facilitate data communications between components within the storage systems as well as computing devices that are outside of the storage system. For example, the communications resources 310 can include fibre channel (‘FC’) technologies such as FC fabrics and FC protocols that can transport SCSI commands over FC networks. The communications resources 310 can also include FC over ethernet (‘FCoE’) technologies through which FC frames are encapsulated and transmitted over Ethernet networks. The communications resources 310 can also include InfiniBand (‘IB’) technologies in which a switched fabric topology is utilized to facilitate transmissions between channel adapters. The communications resources 310 can also include NVM Express (‘NVMe’) technologies and NVMe over fabrics (‘NVMeoF’) technologies through which non-volatile storage media attached via a PCI express (‘PCIe’) bus may be accessed. The communications resources 310 can also include mechanisms for accessing storage resources 308 within the storage system 306 utilizing serial attached SCSI (‘SAS’), serial ATA (‘SATA’) bus interfaces for connecting storage resources 308 within the storage system 306 to host bus adapters within the storage system 306, internet small computer systems interface (‘iSCSI’) technologies to provide block-level access to storage resources 308 within the storage system 306, and other communications resources that that may be useful in facilitating data communications between components within the storage system 306, as well as data communications between the storage system 306 and computing devices that are outside of the storage system 306.

The storage system 306 depicted in FIG. 3B also includes processing resources 312 that may be useful in useful in executing computer program instructions and performing other computational tasks within the storage system 306. The processing resources 312 may include one or more application-specific integrated circuits (‘ASICs’) that are customized for some particular purpose as well as one or more central processing units (‘CPUs’). The processing resources 312 may also include one or more digital signal processors (‘DSPs’), one or more field-programmable gate arrays (‘FPGAs’), one or more systems on a chip (‘SoCs’), or other form of processing resources 312. The storage system 306 may utilize the storage resources 312 to perform a variety of tasks including, but not limited to, supporting the execution of software resources 314 that will be described in greater detail below.

The storage system 306 depicted in FIG. 3B also includes software resources 314 that, when executed by processing resources 312 within the storage system 306, may perform various tasks. The software resources 314 may include, for example, one or more modules of computer program instructions that when executed by processing resources 312 within the storage system 306 are useful in carrying out various data protection techniques to preserve the integrity of data that is stored within the storage systems. Readers will appreciate that such data protection techniques may be carried out, for example, by system software executing on computer hardware within the storage system, by a cloud services provider, or in other ways. Such data protection techniques can include, for example, data archiving techniques that cause data that is no longer actively used to be moved to a separate storage device or separate storage system for long-term retention, data backup techniques through which data stored in the storage system may be copied and stored in a distinct location to avoid data loss in the event of equipment failure or some other form of catastrophe with the storage system, data replication techniques through which data stored in the storage system is replicated to another storage system such that the data may be accessible via multiple storage systems, data snapshotting techniques through which the state of data within the storage system is captured at various points in time, data and database cloning techniques through which duplicate copies of data and databases may be created, and other data protection techniques. Through the use of such data protection techniques, business continuity and disaster recovery objectives may be met as a failure of the storage system may not result in the loss of data stored in the storage system.

The software resources 314 may also include software that is useful in implementing software-defined storage (‘SDS’). In such an example, the software resources 314 may include one or more modules of computer program instructions that, when executed, are useful in policy-based provisioning and management of data storage that is independent of the underlying hardware. Such software resources 314 may be useful in implementing storage virtualization to separate the storage hardware from the software that manages the storage hardware.

The software resources 314 may also include software that is useful in facilitating and optimizing I/O operations that are directed to the storage resources 308 in the storage system 306. For example, the software resources 314 may include software modules that perform carry out various data reduction techniques such as, for example, data compression, data deduplication, and others. The software resources 314 may include software modules that intelligently group together I/O operations to facilitate better usage of the underlying storage resource 308, software modules that perform data migration operations to migrate from within a storage system, as well as software modules that perform other functions. Such software resources 314 may be embodied as one or more software containers or in many other ways.

Readers will appreciate that the various components depicted in FIG. 3B may be grouped into one or more optimized computing packages as converged infrastructures. Such converged infrastructures may include pools of computers, storage and networking resources that can be shared by multiple applications and managed in a collective manner using policy-driven processes. Such converged infrastructures may minimize compatibility issues between various components within the storage system 306 while also reducing various costs associated with the establishment and operation of the storage system 306. Such converged infrastructures may be implemented with a converged infrastructure reference architecture, with standalone appliances, with a software driven hyper-converged approach (e.g., hyper-converged infrastructures), or in other ways.

Readers will appreciate that the storage system 306 depicted in FIG. 3B may be useful for supporting various types of software applications. For example, the storage system 306 may be useful in supporting artificial intelligence (‘AI’) applications, database applications, DevOps projects, electronic design automation tools, event-driven software applications, high performance computing applications, simulation applications, high-speed data capture and analysis applications, machine learning applications, media production applications, media serving applications, picture archiving and communication systems (‘PACS’) applications, software development applications, virtual reality applications, augmented reality applications, and many other types of applications by providing storage resources to such applications.

The storage systems described above may operate to support a wide variety of applications. In view of the fact that the storage systems include compute resources, storage resources, and a wide variety of other resources, the storage systems may be well suited to support applications that are resource intensive such as, for example, AI applications. Such AI applications may enable devices to perceive their environment and take actions that maximize their chance of success at some goal. Examples of such AI applications can include IBM Watson, Microsoft Oxford, Google DeepMind, Baidu Minwa, and others. The storage systems described above may also be well suited to support other types of applications that are resource intensive such as, for example, machine learning applications. Machine learning applications may perform various types of data analysis to automate analytical model building. Using algorithms that iteratively learn from data, machine learning applications can enable computers to learn without being explicitly programmed.

In addition to the resources already described, the storage systems described above may also include graphics processing units (‘GPUs’), occasionally referred to as visual processing unit (‘VPUs’). Such GPUs may be embodied as specialized electronic circuits that rapidly manipulate and alter memory to accelerate the creation of images in a frame buffer intended for output to a display device. Such GPUs may be included within any of the computing devices that are part of the storage systems described above, including as one of many individually scalable components of a storage system, where other examples of individually scalable components of such storage system can include storage components, memory components, compute components (e.g., CPUs, FPGAs, ASICs), networking components, software components, and others. In addition to GPUs, the storage systems described above may also include neural network processors (‘NNPs’) for use in various aspects of neural network processing. Such NNPs may be used in place of (or in addition to) GPUs and may also be independently scalable.

As described above, the storage systems described herein may be configured to support artificial intelligence applications, machine learning applications, big data analytics applications, and many other types of applications. The rapid growth in these sort of applications is being driven by three technologies: deep learning (DL), GPU processors, and Big Data. Deep learning is a computing model that makes use of massively parallel neural networks inspired by the human brain. Instead of experts handcrafting software, a deep learning model writes its own software by learning from lots of examples. A GPU is a modern processor with thousands of cores, well-suited to run algorithms that loosely represent the parallel nature of the human brain.

Advances in deep neural networks have ignited a new wave of algorithms and tools for data scientists to tap into their data with artificial intelligence (AI). With improved algorithms, larger data sets, and various frameworks (including open-source software libraries for machine learning across a range of tasks), data scientists are tackling new use cases like autonomous driving vehicles, natural language processing and understanding, computer vision, machine reasoning, strong AI, and many others. Applications of such techniques may include: machine and vehicular object detection, identification and avoidance; visual recognition, classification and tagging; algorithmic financial trading strategy performance management; simultaneous localization and mapping; predictive maintenance of high-value machinery; prevention against cyber security threats, expertise automation; image recognition and classification; question answering; robotics; text analytics (extraction, classification) and text generation and translation; and many others. Applications of AI techniques has materialized in a wide array of products include, for example, Amazon Echo's speech recognition technology that allows users to talk to their machines, Google Translate™ which allows for machine-based language translation, Spotify's Discover Weekly that provides recommendations on new songs and artists that a user may like based on the user's usage and traffic analysis, Quill's text generation offering that takes structured data and turns it into narrative stories, Chatbots that provide real-time, contextually specific answers to questions in a dialog format, and many others. Furthermore, AI may impact a wide variety of industries and sectors. For example, AI solutions may be used in healthcare to take clinical notes, patient files, research data, and other inputs to generate potential treatment options for doctors to explore. Likewise, AI solutions may be used by retailers to personalize consumer recommendations based on a person's digital footprint of behaviors, profile data, or other data.

Data is the heart of modern AI and deep learning algorithms. Before training can begin, one problem that must be addressed revolves around collecting the labeled data that is crucial for training an accurate AI model. A full scale AI deployment may be required to continuously collect, clean, transform, label, and store large amounts of data. Adding additional high quality data points directly translates to more accurate models and better insights. Data samples may undergo a series of processing steps including, but not limited to: 1) ingesting the data from an external source into the training system and storing the data in raw form, 2) cleaning and transforming the data in a format convenient for training, including linking data samples to the appropriate label, 3) exploring parameters and models, quickly testing with a smaller dataset, and iterating to converge on the most promising models to push into the production cluster, 4) executing training phases to select random batches of input data, including both new and older samples, and feeding those into production GPU servers for computation to update model parameters, and 5) evaluating including using a holdback portion of the data not used in training in order to evaluate model accuracy on the holdout data. This lifecycle may apply for any type of parallelized machine learning, not just neural networks or deep learning. For example, standard machine learning frameworks may rely on CPUs instead of GPUs but the data ingest and training workflows may be the same. Readers will appreciate that a single shared storage data hub creates a coordination point throughout the lifecycle without the need for extra data copies among the ingest, preprocessing, and training stages. Rarely is the ingested data used for only one purpose, and shared storage gives the flexibility to train multiple different models or apply traditional analytics to the data.

Readers will appreciate that each stage in the AI data pipeline may have varying requirements from the data hub (e.g., the storage system or collection of storage systems). Scale-out storage systems must deliver uncompromising performance for all manner of access types and patterns—from small, metadata-heavy to large files, from random to sequential access patterns, and from low to high concurrency. The storage systems described above may serve as an ideal AI data hub as the systems may service unstructured workloads. In the first stage, data is ideally ingested and stored on to the same data hub that following stages will use, in order to avoid excess data copying. The next two steps can be done on a standard compute server that optionally includes a GPU, and then in the fourth and last stage, full training production jobs are run on powerful GPU-accelerated servers. Often, there is a production pipeline alongside an experimental pipeline operating on the same dataset. Further, the GPU-accelerated servers can be used independently for different models or joined together to train on one larger model, even spanning multiple systems for distributed training. If the shared storage tier is slow, then data must be copied to local storage for each phase, resulting in wasted time staging data onto different servers. The ideal data hub for the AI training pipeline delivers performance similar to data stored locally on the server node while also having the simplicity and performance to enable all pipeline stages to operate concurrently.

A data scientist works to improve the usefulness of the trained model through a wide variety of approaches: more data, better data, smarter training, and deeper models. In many cases, there will be teams of data scientists sharing the same datasets and working in parallel to produce new and improved training models. Often, there is a team of data scientists working within these phases concurrently on the same shared datasets. Multiple, concurrent workloads of data processing, experimentation, and full-scale training layer the demands of multiple access patterns on the storage tier. In other words, storage cannot just satisfy large file reads, but must contend with a mix of large and small file reads and writes. Finally, with multiple data scientists exploring datasets and models, it may be critical to store data in its native format to provide flexibility for each user to transform, clean, and use the data in a unique way. The storage systems described above may provide a natural shared storage home for the dataset, with data protection redundancy (e.g., by using RAID6) and the performance necessary to be a common access point for multiple developers and multiple experiments. Using the storage systems described above may avoid the need to carefully copy subsets of the data for local work, saving both engineering and GPU-accelerated servers use time. These copies become a constant and growing tax as the raw data set and desired transformations constantly update and change.

Readers will appreciate that a fundamental reason why deep learning has seen a surge in success is the continued improvement of models with larger data set sizes. In contrast, classical machine learning algorithms, like logistic regression, stop improving in accuracy at smaller data set sizes. As such, the separation of compute resources and storage resources may also allow independent scaling of each tier, avoiding many of the complexities inherent in managing both together. As the data set size grows or new data sets are considered, a scale out storage system must be able to expand easily. Similarly, if more concurrent training is required, additional GPUs or other compute resources can be added without concern for their internal storage. Furthermore, the storage systems described above may make building, operating, and growing an AI system easier due to the random read bandwidth provided by the storage systems, the ability to of the storage systems to randomly read small files (50 KB) high rates (meaning that no extra effort is required to aggregate individual data points to make larger, storage-friendly files), the ability of the storage systems to scale capacity and performance as either the dataset grows or the throughput requirements grow, the ability of the storage systems to support files or objects, the ability of the storage systems to tune performance for large or small files (i.e., no need for the user to provision filesystems), the ability of the storage systems to support non-disruptive upgrades of hardware and software even during production model training, and for many other reasons.

Small file performance of the storage tier may be critical as many types of inputs, including text, audio, or images will be natively stored as small files. If the storage tier does not handle small files well, an extra step will be required to pre-process and group samples into larger files. Storage, built on top of spinning disks, that relies on SSD as a caching tier, may fall short of the performance needed. Because training with random input batches results in more accurate models, the entire data set must be accessible with full performance. SSD caches only provide high performance for a small subset of the data and will be ineffective at hiding the latency of spinning drives.

Although the preceding paragraphs discuss deep learning applications, readers will appreciate that the storage systems described herein may also be part of a distributed deep learning (‘DDL’) platform to support the execution of DDL algorithms. Distributed deep learning can be used to significantly accelerate deep learning with distributed computing on GPUs (or other form of accelerator or computer program instruction executor), such that parallelism can be achieved. In addition, the output of training machine learning and deep learning models, such as a fully trained machine learning model, may be used for a variety of purposes and in conjunction with other tools. For example, trained machine learning models may be used in conjunction with tools like Core ML to integrate a broad variety of machine learning model types into an application. In fact, trained models may be run through Core ML converter tools and inserted into a custom application that can be deployed on compatible devices. The storage systems described above may also be paired with other technologies such as TensorFlow, an open-source software library for dataflow programming across a range of tasks that may be used for machine learning applications such as neural networks, to facilitate the development of such machine learning models, applications, and so on.

The storage systems described above may also be used in a neuromorphic computing environment. Neuromorphic computing is a form of computing that mimics brain cells. To support neuromorphic computing, an architecture of interconnected “neurons” replace traditional computing models with low-powered signals that go directly between neurons for more efficient computation. Neuromorphic computing may make use of very-large-scale integration (VLSI) systems containing electronic analog circuits to mimic neuro-biological architectures present in the nervous system, as well as analog, digital, mixed-mode analog/digital VLSI, and software systems that implement models of neural systems for perception, motor control, or multisensory integration.

Readers will appreciate that the storage systems described above may be configured to support the storage of (among of types of data) blockchains. Such blockchains may be embodied as a continuously growing list of records, called blocks, which are linked and secured using cryptography. Each block in a blockchain may contain a hash pointer as a link to a previous block, a timestamp, transaction data, and so on. Blockchains may be designed to be resistant to modification of the data and can serve as an open, distributed ledger that can record transactions between two parties efficiently and in a verifiable and permanent way. This makes blockchains potentially suitable for the recording of events, medical records, and other records management activities, such as identity management, transaction processing, and others. In addition to supporting the storage and use of blockchain technologies, the storage systems described above may also support the storage and use of derivative items such as, for example, open source blockchains and related tools that are part of the IBM™ Hyperledger project, permissioned blockchains in which a certain number of trusted parties are allowed to access the block chain, blockchain products that enable developers to build their own distributed ledger projects, and others. Readers will appreciate that blockchain technologies may impact a wide variety of industries and sectors. For example, blockchain technologies may be used in real estate transactions as blockchain based contracts whose use can eliminate the need for 3rd parties and enable self-executing actions when conditions are met. Likewise, universal health records can be created by aggregating and placing a person's health history onto a blockchain ledger for any healthcare provider, or permissioned health care providers, to access and update.

Readers will further appreciate that in some embodiments, the storage systems described above may be paired with other resources to support the applications described above. For example, one infrastructure could include primary compute in the form of servers and workstations which specialize in using General-purpose computing on graphics processing units (‘GPGPU’) to accelerate deep learning applications that are interconnected into a computation engine to train parameters for deep neural networks. Each system may have Ethernet external connectivity, InfiniBand external connectivity, some other form of external connectivity, or some combination thereof. In such an example, the GPUs can be grouped for a single large training or used independently to train multiple models. The infrastructure could also include a storage system such as those described above to provide, for example, a scale-out all-flash file or object store through which data can be accessed via high-performance protocols such as NFS, S3, and so on. The infrastructure can also include, for example, redundant top-of-rack Ethernet switches connected to storage and compute via ports in MLAG port channels for redundancy. The infrastructure could also include additional compute in the form of whitebox servers, optionally with GPUs, for data ingestion, pre-processing, and model debugging. Readers will appreciate that additional infrastructures are also possible.

Readers will appreciate that the systems described above may be better suited for the applications described above relative to other systems that may include, for example, a distributed direct-attached storage (DDAS) solution deployed in server nodes. Such DDAS solutions may be built for handling large, less sequential accesses but may be less able to handle small, random accesses. Readers will further appreciate that the storage systems described above may be utilized to provide a platform for the applications described above that is preferable to the utilization of cloud-based resources as the storage systems may be included in an on-site or in-house infrastructure that is more secure, more locally and internally managed, more robust in feature sets and performance, or otherwise preferable to the utilization of cloud-based resources as part of a platform to support the applications described above. For example, services built on platforms such as IBM's Watson may require a business enterprise to distribute individual user information, such as financial transaction information or identifiable patient records, to other institutions. As such, cloud-based offerings of AI as a service may be less desirable than internally managed and offered AI as a service that is supported by storage systems such as the storage systems described above, for a wide array of technical reasons as well as for various business reasons.

Readers will appreciate that the storage systems described above, either alone or in coordination with other computing machinery may be configured to support other AI related tools. For example, the storage systems may make use of tools like ONXX or other open neural network exchange formats that make it easier to transfer models written in different AI frameworks. Likewise, the storage systems may be configured to support tools like Amazon's Gluon that allow developers to prototype, build, and train deep learning models. In fact, the storage systems described above may be part of a larger platform, such as IBM™ Cloud Private for Data, that includes integrated data science, data engineering and application building services. Such platforms may seamlessly collect, organize, secure, and analyze data across an enterprise, as well as simplify hybrid data management, unified data governance and integration, data science and business analytics with a single solution.

Readers will further appreciate that the storage systems described above may also be deployed as an edge solution. Such an edge solution may be in place to optimize cloud computing systems by performing data processing at the edge of the network, near the source of the data. Edge computing can push applications, data and computing power (i.e., services) away from centralized points to the logical extremes of a network. Through the use of edge solutions such as the storage systems described above, computational tasks may be performed using the compute resources provided by such storage systems, data may be storage using the storage resources of the storage system, and cloud-based services may be accessed through the use of various resources of the storage system (including networking resources). By performing computational tasks on the edge solution, storing data on the edge solution, and generally making use of the edge solution, the consumption of expensive cloud-based resources may be avoided and, in fact, performance improvements may be experienced relative to a heavier reliance on cloud-based resources.

While many tasks may benefit from the utilization of an edge solution, some particular uses may be especially suited for deployment in such an environment. For example, devices like drones, autonomous cars, robots, and others may require extremely rapid processing so fast, in fact, that sending data up to a cloud environment and back to receive data processing support may simply be too slow. Likewise, machines like locomotives and gas turbines that generate large amounts of information through the use of a wide array of data-generating sensors may benefit from the rapid data processing capabilities of an edge solution. As an additional example, some IoT devices such as connected video cameras may not be well-suited for the utilization of cloud-based resources as it may be impractical (not only from a privacy perspective, security perspective, or a financial perspective) to send the data to the cloud simply because of the pure volume of data that is involved. As such, many tasks that really on data processing, storage, or communications may be better suited by platforms that include edge solutions such as the storage systems described above.

Consider a specific example of inventory management in a warehouse, distribution center, or similar location. A large inventory, warehousing, shipping, order-fulfillment, manufacturing or other operation has a large amount of inventory on inventory shelves, and high resolution digital cameras that produce a firehose of large data. All of this data may be taken into an image processing system, which may reduce the amount of data to a firehose of small data. All of the small data may be stored on-premises in storage. The on-premises storage, at the edge of the facility, may be coupled to the cloud, for external reports, real-time control and cloud storage. Inventory management may be performed with the results of the image processing, so that inventory can be tracked on the shelves and restocked, moved, shipped, modified with new products, or discontinued/obsolescent products deleted, etc. The above scenario is a prime candidate for an embodiment of the configurable processing and storage systems described above. A combination of compute-only blades and offload blades suited for the image processing, perhaps with deep learning on offload-FPGA or offload-custom blade(s) could take in the firehose of large data from all of the digital cameras, and produce the firehose of small data. All of the small data could then be stored by storage nodes, operating with storage units in whichever combination of types of storage blades best handles the data flow. This is an example of storage and function acceleration and integration. Depending on external communication needs with the cloud, and external processing in the cloud, and depending on reliability of network connections and cloud resources, the system could be sized for storage and compute management with bursty workloads and variable conductivity reliability. Also, depending on other inventory management aspects, the system could be configured for scheduling and resource management in a hybrid edge/cloud environment.

The storage systems described above may alone, or in combination with other computing resources, serves as a network edge platform that combines compute resources, storage resources, networking resources, cloud technologies and network virtualization technologies, and so on. As part of the network, the edge may take on characteristics similar to other network facilities, from the customer premise and backhaul aggregation facilities to Points of Presence (PoPs) and regional data centers. Readers will appreciate that network workloads, such as Virtual Network Functions (VNFs) and others, will reside on the network edge platform. Enabled by a combination of containers and virtual machines, the network edge platform may rely on controllers and schedulers that are no longer geographically co-located with the data processing resources. The functions, as microservices, may split into control planes, user and data planes, or even state machines, allowing for independent optimization and scaling techniques to be applied. Such user and data planes may be enabled through increased accelerators, both those residing in server platforms, such as FPGAs and Smart NICs, and through SDN-enabled merchant silicon and programmable ASICs.

The storage systems described above may also be optimized for use in big data analytics. Big data analytics may be generally described as the process of examining large and varied data sets to uncover hidden patterns, unknown correlations, market trends, customer preferences and other useful information that can help organizations make more-informed business decisions. Big data analytics applications enable data scientists, predictive modelers, statisticians and other analytics professionals to analyze growing volumes of structured transaction data, plus other forms of data that are often left untapped by conventional business intelligence (BI) and analytics programs. As part of that process, semi-structured and unstructured data such as, for example, internet clickstream data, web server logs, social media content, text from customer emails and survey responses, mobile-phone call-detail records, IoT sensor data, and other data may be converted to a structured form. Big data analytics is a form of advanced analytics, which involves complex applications with elements such as predictive models, statistical algorithms and what-if analyses powered by high-performance analytics systems.

The storage systems described above may also support (including implementing as a system interface) applications that perform tasks in response to human speech. For example, the storage systems may support the execution of intelligent personal assistant applications such as, for example, Amazon's Alexa, Apple Siri, Google Voice, Samsung Bixby, Microsoft Cortana, and others. While the examples described in the previous sentence make use of voice as input, the storage systems described above may also support chatbots, talkbots, chatterbots, or artificial conversational entities or other applications that are configured to conduct a conversation via auditory or textual methods. Likewise, the storage system may actually execute such an application to enable a user such as a system administrator to interact with the storage system via speech. Such applications are generally capable of voice interaction, music playback, making to-do lists, setting alarms, streaming podcasts, playing audiobooks, and providing weather, traffic, and other real time information, such as news, although in embodiments in accordance with the present disclosure, such applications may be utilized as interfaces to various system management operations.

The storage systems described above may also implement AI platforms for delivering on the vision of self-driving storage. Such AI platforms may be configured to deliver global predictive intelligence by collecting and analyzing large amounts of storage system telemetry data points to enable effortless management, analytics and support. In fact, such storage systems may be capable of predicting both capacity and performance, as well as generating intelligent advice on workload deployment, interaction and optimization. Such AI platforms may be configured to scan all incoming storage system telemetry data against a library of issue fingerprints to predict and resolve incidents in real-time, before they impact customer environments, and captures hundreds of variables related to performance that are used to forecast performance load.

The storage systems described above may support the serialized or simultaneous execution artificial intelligence applications, machine learning applications, data analytics applications, data transformations, and other tasks that collectively may form an AI ladder. Such an AI ladder may effectively be formed by combining such elements to form a complete data science pipeline, where exist dependencies between elements of the AI ladder. For example, AI may require that some form of machine learning has taken place, machine learning may require that some form of analytics has taken place, analytics may require that some form of data and information architecting has taken place, and so on. As such, each element may be viewed as a rung in an AI ladder that collectively can form a complete and sophisticated AI solution.

The storage systems described above may also, either alone or in combination with other computing environments, be used to deliver an AI everywhere experience where AI permeates wide and expansive aspects of business and life. For example, AI may play an important role in the delivery of deep learning solutions, deep reinforcement learning solutions, artificial general intelligence solutions, autonomous vehicles, cognitive computing solutions, commercial UAVs or drones, conversational user interfaces, enterprise taxonomies, ontology management solutions, machine learning solutions, smart dust, smart robots, smart workplaces, and many others. The storage systems described above may also, either alone or in combination with other computing environments, be used to deliver a wide range of transparently immersive experiences where technology can introduce transparency between people, businesses, and things. Such transparently immersive experiences may be delivered as augmented reality technologies, connected homes, virtual reality technologies, brain-computer interfaces, human augmentation technologies, nanotube electronics, volumetric displays, 4D printing technologies, or others. The storage systems described above may also, either alone or in combination with other computing environments, be used to support a wide variety of digital platforms. Such digital platforms can include, for example, 5G wireless systems and platforms, digital twin platforms, edge computing platforms, IoT platforms, quantum computing platforms, serverless PaaS, software-defined security, neuromorphic computing platforms, and so on.

The storage systems described above may also be part of a multi-cloud environment in which multiple cloud computing and storage services are deployed in a single heterogeneous architecture. In order to facilitate the operation of such a multi-cloud environment, DevOps tools may be deployed to enable orchestration across clouds. Likewise, continuous development and continuous integration tools may be deployed to standardize processes around continuous integration and delivery, new feature rollout and provisioning cloud workloads. By standardizing these processes, a multi-cloud strategy may be implemented that enables the utilization of the best provider for each workload. Furthermore, application monitoring and visibility tools may be deployed to move application workloads around different clouds, identify performance issues, and perform other tasks. In addition, security and compliance tools may be deployed to ensure compliance with security requirements, government regulations, and so on. Such a multi-cloud environment may also include tools for application delivery and smart workload management to ensure efficient application delivery and help direct workloads across the distributed and heterogeneous infrastructure, as well as tools that ease the deployment and maintenance of packaged and custom applications in the cloud and enable portability amongst clouds. The multi-cloud environment may similarly include tools for data portability.

The storage systems described above may be used as a part of a platform to enable the use of crypto-anchors that may be used to authenticate a product's origins and contents to ensure that it matches a blockchain record associated with the product. Such crypto-anchors may take many forms including, for example, as edible ink, as a mobile sensor, as a microchip, and others. Similarly, as part of a suite of tools to secure data stored on the storage system, the storage systems described above may implement various encryption technologies and schemes, including lattice cryptography. Lattice cryptography can involve constructions of cryptographic primitives that involve lattices, either in the construction itself or in the security proof. Unlike public-key schemes such as the RSA, Diffie-Hellman or Elliptic-Curve cryptosystems, which are easily attacked by a quantum computer, some lattice-based constructions appear to be resistant to attack by both classical and quantum computers.

A quantum computer is a device that performs quantum computing. Quantum computing is computing using quantum-mechanical phenomena, such as superposition and entanglement. Quantum computers differ from traditional computers that are based on transistors, as such traditional computers require that data be encoded into binary digits (bits), each of which is always in one of two definite states (0 or 1). In contrast to traditional computers, quantum computers use quantum bits, which can be in superpositions of states. A quantum computer maintains a sequence of qubits, where a single qubit can represent a one, a zero, or any quantum superposition of those two qubit states. A pair of qubits can be in any quantum superposition of 4 states, and three qubits in any superposition of 8 states. A quantum computer with n qubits can generally be in an arbitrary superposition of up to 2{circumflex over ( )}n different states simultaneously, whereas a traditional computer can only be in one of these states at any one time. A quantum Turing machine is a theoretical model of such a computer.

For further explanation, FIG. 4 sets forth a flowchart illustrating an example method of workload planning in a storage system (408) according to some embodiments of the present disclosure. The storage systems (402, 406, 408) depicted in FIG. 4 may be similar to the storage systems described in the previous figures, as each storage system (402, 406, 408) may include any combination of the components as described with reference to the other figures described herein.

The example method depicted in FIG. 4 includes generating (410), in dependence upon data (404) collected from a plurality of storage systems (402, 406), a load model (412) that predicts performance load on the storage system (408) based on characteristics of workloads (420, 422, 424) executing on the storage system (408). The data (404) collected from a plurality of storage systems (402, 406) may be embodied, for example, as telemetry data that is periodically sent from the storage systems (402, 406) to a centralized management service (not illustrated). Such telemetry data may include information that is useful for monitoring the operation of the storage system that sends the data including, for example, information describing various performance characteristics of the storage system, information describing various workloads that are executing on the storage system, and other types of information. The information describing various performance characteristics of the storage system can include, for example, the number of IOPS being serviced by the storage system, the utilization rates of various computing resources (e.g., CPU utilization) within the storage system, the utilization rates of various networking resources (e.g., network bandwidth utilization) within the storage system, the utilization rates of various storage resources (e.g., NVRAM utilization) within the storage system, and many others. Likewise, the information describing various workloads that are executing on the storage system can include, for example, information describing the number of IOPS being generated by a particular workload, overwrite rates for I/O operations that are being generated by the workload, the amount of read bandwidth that is being consumed by I/O operations generated by the workload, and many others. As such, an examination of the telemetry data can reveal characteristics of the workloads (420, 422, 424) executing on the storage system (408). The characteristics of the workloads (420, 422, 424) executing on the storage system (408) can include, for example, information describing the number of IOPS being generated by the workload, overwrite rates for I/O operations that are being generated by the workload, the amount of read bandwidth that is being consumed by I/O operations generated by the workload, and many others.

In the example method depicted in FIG. 4 , a load model (412) that predicts performance load on the storage system (408) based on characteristics of workloads (420, 422, 424) executing on the storage system (408) may be generated (410). The term ‘performance load’ used herein may refer to a measure of load on a storage system that is generated in dependence upon multiple system metrics. For example, the performance load on the storage system (408) may be generated in dependence upon the amount of read bandwidth being serviced by the storage system, the amount of write bandwidth being serviced by the storage system, the amount of IOPS being serviced by the storage system, the amount of computing load being placed on the storage system, the amount of data transfer load being placed on the storage system, and many other factors. In such an example, the performance load on the storage system (408) may be calculated according to some formula that takes as inputs the weighted or unweighted combination of such factors described in the preceding sentence. The performance load on the storage system (408) can therefore, in some embodiments, represent a single measure of load on a storage system that is generated in dependence upon multiple system metrics.

In the example method depicted in FIG. 4 , generating (410) the load model (412) that predicts performance load on the storage system (408) based on characteristics of workloads (420, 422, 424) executing on the storage system (408) in dependence upon data (404) collected from a plurality of storage systems (402, 406) may be carried out, for example, through the use of machine learning techniques. In such an example, machine learning algorithms may be fed with information describing various performance characteristics of various storage systems (as extracted from the telemetry data) and information describing various workloads that are executing on various storage systems (as extracted from the telemetry data) to identify correlations between the amount of performance load that was placed on a particular storage system given the characteristics of the workloads that were executing on the particular storage system at the same point in time. In such an example, a load model (412) may be created for a variety of different storage system configurations. For example, load models may be created for storage systems that have different hardware configurations, load models may be created for storage systems that have different software configurations, load models may be created for storage systems that have different configuration settings, or any combination thereof. As such, each particular load model that is generated may be specific to a particular combination of hardware, software, configuration settings, or other attributes of a particular storage system configuration. In other embodiments, each particular load model may be a subset of such attributes of a particular storage system configuration.

The example method depicted in FIG. 4 also includes generating (414), for one or more workloads (420, 422, 424), predicted characteristics (416) of the one or more workloads (420, 422, 424). In the example method depicted in FIG. 4 , generating (414) predicted characteristics (416) of the one or more workloads (420, 422, 424) can include performing a time-series analysis of each workload (420, 422, 424). Readers will appreciate that the telemetry data described herein may not only be useful for enabling a centralized management service to monitor the operation of the storage system that sends the data, but such telemetry data may also be useful for identifying trends associated with the workloads themselves. As such, an examination of the telemetry data can be used to generate trending information for the workloads including, for example, information describing the rate at which the number of IOPS being generated by the workload has been changing, the rate at which overwrite rates for I/O operations that are being generated by the workload are changing, the rate at which the amount of read bandwidth that is being consumed by I/O operations generated by the workload is changing, and many others. In such a way, predicted characteristics (416) of the one or more workloads (420, 422, 424) may be generated (414) by extrapolating identified trends out over a period of time in the future.

Consider an example in which telemetry data gathered from a plurality of storage systems (402, 406) indicates that, on average, the amount of CPU resources required to support a virtual desktop infrastructure workload doubles every three years. In such an example, if a particular workload (422) that is executing on the storage system (408) is a virtual desktop infrastructure workload, generating (414) predicted characteristics (416) of such a workload may be carried out, at least in part, by determining the amount of CPU resources currently required to support the particular workload (422) and assuming that the amount of CPU resources that will be required to support the particular workload (422) in the future will double every three years. In such a way, the load demands created by each workload may be projected to some point in the future.

The example method depicted in FIG. 4 also includes predicting (418) performance load on the storage system (408) in dependence upon the load model (412) and the predicted characteristics (416) of the one or more workloads (420, 422, 424). Predicting (418) performance load on the storage system (408) may be carried out, for example, by utilizing the predicted characteristics (416) of the one or more workloads (420, 422, 424) that will be supported by the storage system as inputs to the load model (412) associated with the storage system (408). In such a way, if the one or more workloads (420, 422, 424) do change over time as predicted (thereby resulting in a change to the amount of system resources that are consumed by the workloads), and the load model (412) can accurately predict how well the storage system (408) could support the workloads in their new state, the performance load on the storage system (408) can be accurately predicted.

Continuing with the example described above in which the storage system (408) is supporting a virtual desktop infrastructure workload and telemetry data gathered from a plurality of storage systems (402, 406) indicates that, on average, the amount of CPU resources required to support a virtual desktop infrastructure workload doubles every three years, assume that the load model (412) for the storage system (408) indicated that doubling the amount of CPU resources on the storage system (408) would result in a 20% increase in total performance load on the storage system (408). In such an example, absent any other changes to the storage system (408) or the workloads (420, 422, 424) supported by the storage system (408), predicting (418) performance load on the storage system (408) in dependence upon the load model (412) and the predicted characteristics (416) of the one or more workloads (420, 422, 424) would result in a prediction that the total performance load on the storage system (408) would increase by 20% in three years. This information could be used for a variety of reasons, as will be expanded upon below.

Readers will appreciate that predicting (418) performance load on the storage system (408), a load model (412) may be used that was developed for storage systems that most closely resemble the storage system (408) whose performance load is being predicted. Consider an example in which load models are constructed for systems using some combination of three system attributes: model number, system software version number, and storage capacity. In such an example, assume that the table below maps various load models with various system configurations:

TABLE 1 Model Mapping Table Load System Software Storage Model ID Model Num. Version Capacity 1 1 Any Any 2 1 1 Any 3 1 2 Any 4 1 1 250-499 TB 5 1 1 500 TB-1.5 PB 6 1 2 250-499 TB 7 1 2 500 TB-1.5 PB 8 2 Any Any 9 2 1 Any 10 2 1 Any

In this example, assume that the storage system (408) whose performance load is being predicted is a storage system with a model number of ‘1’, that is running version ‘2’ of system software, that has a storage capacity of 1 PB. In such an example, load model ‘5’ is the load model that has been developed for storage systems that most closely resemble the storage system (408) whose performance load is being predicted would. As such, load model ‘5’ would be utilized when predicting (418) performance load on the storage system (408) in dependence upon the load model (412) and the predicted characteristics (416) of the one or more workloads (420, 422, 424). In an example where the storage system (408) whose performance load is being predicted is a storage system with a model number of ‘1’, that is running version ‘2’ of system software, that has a storage capacity of 400 TB, however, load model ‘4’ may be utilized. Readers will appreciate that in situations in which a fit that matches all criterion is not available, catch-all models (e.g., models 1, 2, 3, 8, 9, 10) may be utilized.

For further explanation, FIG. 5 sets forth a flowchart illustrating an additional example method of workload planning in a storage system according to some embodiments of the present disclosure. The example method depicted in FIG. 5 is similar to the example methods described above, as the example method depicted in FIG. 5 also includes generating (410) a load model (412), generating (414) predicted characteristics (416) of the one or more workloads (420, 422, 424), and predicting (418) performance load on the storage system (408) in dependence upon the load model (412) and the predicted characteristics (416) of the one or more workloads (420, 422, 424).

The example method depicted in FIG. 5 also includes receiving (502) information describing one or more modifications to the storage system (408). The modifications to the storage system (408) may include, for example, upgrading from one version of system software to another version of system software, adding storage devices, removing storage devices, replacing existing storage devices in the storage system (408) with improved (e.g., denser, faster) storage devices, modifying the amount of computing resources within the storage system, modifying the type or amount of networking resources within the storage system (408), or any combination of these or other modifications. The information describing one or more modifications to the storage system (408) may be embodied, for example, as a system inventory list or in some other way. The information describing one or more modifications to the storage system (408) may be received, for example, via a user interface that enables an admin or other user to select various configuration changes.

The example method depicted in FIG. 5 also includes predicting (504) updated performance load on the storage system (408) in dependence upon a load model of a modified storage system and the predicted characteristics (416) of the one or more workloads (420, 422, 424). Predicting (504) updated performance load on the storage system (408) may be carried out, for example, by utilizing the predicted characteristics (416) of the one or more workloads (420, 422, 424) that will be supported by the storage system as inputs to a load model of associated with the storage system (408) as modified. In such a way, if the one or more workloads (420, 422, 424) do change over time as predicted (thereby resulting in a change to the amount of system resources that are consumed by the workloads), and the load model (412) can accurately predict how well the storage system (408) as modified could support the workloads in their new state, the performance load on the modified storage system (408) can be accurately predicted (504). Readers will appreciate that, as described above, a load model (412) may be used that was developed for storage systems that most closely resemble the storage system (408) as modified. As such, the load model that is used to predict (504) updated performance load on the storage system (408) may be different than the load model that was used to predict (418) performance load on the storage system (408) prior to receiving (502) information describing one or more modifications to the storage system (408).

Readers will appreciate that although the preceding paragraphs describe receiving (502) information describing one or more modifications to the storage system (408), the information may actually describe one or more possible modifications to the storage system (408)—rather than an actual modification. As such, prior to making actual modifications to the storage system (408), the impact of such modifications may be analyzed by predicting (504) updated performance load on the storage system (408) in dependence upon the predicted characteristics (416) of the one or more workloads (420, 422, 424) and a load model for storage systems that most closely resemble the storage system if the one or more possible modifications to the storage system (408) were actually made. Such information may be useful for evaluating whether to actually proceed with the modifications to the storage system (408).

For further explanation, FIG. 6 sets forth a flowchart illustrating an additional example method of workload planning in a storage system according to some embodiments of the present disclosure. The example method depicted in FIG. 6 is similar to the example methods described above, as the example method depicted in FIG. 6 also includes generating (410) a load model (412), generating (414) predicted characteristics (416) of the one or more workloads (420, 422, 424), and predicting (418) performance load on the storage system (408) in dependence upon the load model (412) and the predicted characteristics (416) of the one or more workloads (420, 422, 424).

The example method depicted in FIG. 6 also includes receiving (602) information describing one or more workloads to be removed from the storage system (408). The information describing one or more workloads to be removed from the storage system (408) may be embodied, for example, as an identifier of a particular workload that is to be removed from the storage system (408), as a generalized description (e.g., Oracle database) of a workload to be removed from the storage system (408), as an identification of a volume that is used to support a workload that is to be removed from the storage system (408), or in some other way. The information describing one or more workloads to be removed from the storage system (408) may be received, for example, via a user interface that enables an admin or other user to select workloads to be removed from the storage system (408).

The example method depicted in FIG. 6 also includes predicting (604) an updated performance load on the storage system (408) in dependence upon the load model (412) and the predicted characteristics of remaining workloads on the storage system (408). Predicting (604) an updated performance load on the storage system (408) in dependence upon the load model (412) and the predicted characteristics of remaining workloads on the storage system (408) may be carried out, for example, by utilizing the predicted characteristics (416) of the one or more remaining workloads on the storage system (408)—excluding the workload that will be removed—as inputs to the load model (412) associated with the storage system (408). In such a way, if the one or more remaining workloads (420, 422, 424) do change over time as predicted (thereby resulting in a change to the amount of system resources that are consumed by the workloads), and the load model (412) can accurately predict how well the storage system (408) could support the workloads in their new state, the performance load on the storage system (408) can be accurately predicted (418). For example, if a first workload (420) is to be removed from the storage system (408), predicting (604) an updated performance load on the storage system (408) in dependence upon the load model (412) and the predicted characteristics of remaining workloads on the storage system (408) may be carried out by utilizing the predicted characteristics (416) of the remaining workloads (422, 424) on the storage system (408) as inputs to the load model (412) associated with the storage system (408).

Readers will appreciate that although the preceding paragraphs describe receiving (602) information describing one or more workloads to be removed from the storage system (408), the information may actually describe one or more workloads that are candidates for removal from the storage system (408)—rather than workloads that have actually been removed from the storage system (408). As such, prior to actually removing a workload from the storage system (408), the impact of removing the workload from the storage system (408) may be analyzed by predicting (604) an updated performance load on the storage system (408) in dependence upon the load model (412) and the predicted characteristics of proposed remaining workloads on the storage system (408). Such information may be useful for evaluating whether to actually proceed with removing the workload from the storage system (408).

For further explanation, FIG. 7 sets forth a flowchart illustrating an additional example method of workload planning in a storage system according to some embodiments of the present disclosure. The example method depicted in FIG. 7 is similar to the example methods described above, as the example method depicted in FIG. 7 also includes generating (410) a load model (412), generating (414) predicted characteristics (416) of the one or more workloads (420, 422, 424), and predicting (418) performance load on the storage system (408) in dependence upon the load model (412) and the predicted characteristics (416) of the one or more workloads (420, 422, 424).

The example method depicted in FIG. 7 also includes receiving (702) information describing one or more workloads to be added to the storage system (408). The information describing one or more workloads to be added to the storage system (408) may be embodied, for example, as an identifier of a particular workload that is executing on another storage system that may be added to the storage system (408), as a generalized description (e.g., Oracle database) of a workload to be added to the storage system (408), as an identification of a volume on another storage system that is used to support the workload that is to be added to the storage system (408), or in some other way. The information describing one or more workloads to be added to the storage system (408) may be received, for example, via a user interface that enables an admin or other user to select workloads to be added to the storage system (408).

The example method depicted in FIG. 7 also includes predicting (704) an updated performance load on the storage system (408) in dependence upon the load model (412) and the predicted characteristics of an updated set of workloads on the storage system (408). Predicting (704) an updated performance load on the storage system (408) in dependence upon the load model (412) and the predicted characteristics of an updated set of workloads on the storage system (408) may be carried out, for example, by utilizing the predicted characteristics (416) of the workloads (420, 422, 424) that were already supported by the storage system (408), as well as predicted characteristics (416) of all workloads to be added to the storage system (408), as inputs to the load model (412) associated with the storage system (408). In such a way, if the workloads (420, 422, 424) that were already supported by the storage system (408) and the workloads to be added to the storage system (408) do change over time as predicted (thereby resulting in a change to the amount of system resources that are consumed by the workloads), and the load model (412) can accurately predict how well the storage system (408) could support the workloads in their new state and the performance load on the storage system (408) can be accurately predicted (418). For example, if a workload (706) from a first storage system (402) and a workload (708) from a second storage system (406) are to be added to the storage system (408), predicting (704) an updated performance load on the storage system (408) in dependence upon the load model (412) and the predicted characteristics of an updated set of workloads on the storage system (408) may be carried out by utilizing the predicted characteristics (416) of the workloads (420, 422, 424) already supported by the storage system (408) as well as the predicted characteristics of the workloads (706, 708) to be added to the storage system (408) as inputs to the load model (412) associated with the storage system (408).

Readers will appreciate that although the preceding paragraphs describe receiving (702) information describing one or more workloads to be added to the storage system (408), the information may actually describe one or more workloads that are candidates for addition to the storage system (408)—rather than workloads that have actually added to storage system (408). As such, prior to actually adding a workload to the storage system (408), the impact of adding the workload to the storage system (408) may be analyzed by predicting (704) an updated performance load on the storage system (408) in dependence upon the load model (412) and the predicted characteristics of an updated set of workloads on the storage system (408). Such information may be useful for evaluating whether to actually proceed with adding the workloads to the storage system (408).

Readers will further appreciate that although the steps of receiving (602) information describing one or more workloads to be removed from the storage system (408) and predicting (604) an updated performance load on the storage system (408) in dependence upon the load model (412) and the predicted characteristics of remaining workloads on the storage system (408) are described with reference to the embodiment depicted in FIG. 6 , while the steps of receiving (702) information describing one or more workloads to be added to the storage system (408) and predicting (704) an updated performance load on the storage system (408) in dependence upon the load model (412) and the predicted characteristics of an updated set of workloads on the storage system (408) are described with reference to the embodiment depicted in FIG. 7 , embodiments of the present disclosure can include a combination of all these steps. Consider an example in which two workloads (706, 708) from other storage systems (402, 406) are candidates for addition to the storage system (408) and that, as part of adding these workloads (706, 708), workloads (420, 422) already supported by the storage system (408) would be migrated to other storage systems (402, 406). In such an example, the impact of adding workloads and removing workloads could be evaluated in combination, by passing predicted characteristics associated the updated set of workloads (424, 706, 708) that could be supported by the storage system (408) as inputs to the load model (412) associated with the storage system (408). Such embodiments may be useful for identifying an optimal set of workloads that could be placed on the storage system (408). In order to do so, it may also be necessary to generate predicted characteristics of workloads that may be added to the storage system in the same manner as described above in step 414.

For further explanation, FIG. 8 sets forth a flowchart illustrating an additional example method of workload planning in a storage system according to some embodiments of the present disclosure. The example method depicted in FIG. 8 is similar to the example methods described above, as the example method depicted in FIG. 8 also includes generating (410) a load model (412), generating (414) predicted characteristics (416) of the one or more workloads (420, 422, 424), and predicting (418) performance load on the storage system (408) in dependence upon the load model (412) and the predicted characteristics (416) of the one or more workloads (420, 422, 424).

In the example methods described herein, each of the one or more workloads may be defined by one or more volumes on the storage system. In such an example, a workload may be defined by one or more volumes on the storage system in the sense that servicing I/O operations directed to a particular volume is a workload that a storage system must support. In such an example, because the storage system may maintain and track information such as, for example, the amount of space consumed by the volume, the amount of performance resources consumed to support the servicing of I/O operations to the volume, such information may be useful in determining the amount of load placed on the storage system as a result of servicing the workload. In many cases, a particular workload may cause I/O operations to be directed to a single volume, but in other cases a workload may cause I/O operations to be directed to multiple volumes. In either case, information associated with the volumes may be gathered (and combined if appropriate) to determine the amount load placed on the storage system as a result of servicing the workload.

The example method depicted in FIG. 8 also includes determining (802) when the predicted performance load on the storage system (408) will exceed performance capacity of the storage system (408). The performance capacity of the storage system (408) may be expressed, for example, as the number of IOPS that the storage system (408) can service, the amount of network bandwidth available within the storage system (408), the amount of read bandwidth that can be serviced by the storage system (408), the amount of write bandwidth that can be serviced by the storage system (408), the amount of various storage resources (e.g., NVRAM) within the storage system (408), and many others. In fact, the performance capacity of the storage system (408) may even be calculated as a function of a combination of such characteristics of the storage system (408) in a way that in analogous to the manner in which performance load on the storage system (408) is determined. As such, the performance capacity of the storage system (408) may be expressed in units of measure that are identical to performance load, such that the performance capacity of the storage system (408) may be expressed as a maximum performance load that can be supported by the storage system (408).

The example method depicted in FIG. 8 also includes generating (804), in dependence upon predicted performance load on the storage system (408), a recommendation. The recommendation that is generated (804) may include, for example, a recommendation to perform a hardware or software upgrade on the storage system (804), a recommendation to move a workload from the storage system (408) to another storage system, and so on. In such an example, rules may be in place such that recommendations are generated (804), for example, when the predicted performance load on the storage system (408) reaches a predetermined threshold, when the predicted performance load on the storage system (408) is expected to exceed performance capacity of the storage system (408) within a predetermined period of time, when additional storage systems are added to or removed from a cluster, when other storage systems within a cluster are modified (e.g., a hardware or software updated occurs), when the storage system (408) itself is modified, and so on. In such an example, the recommendation may be presented (e.g., via a GUI, via a message) to a system administrator or other user that can take action in response to the recommendation. Likewise, the recommendation may be sent to an upgrade module or other automated module that may carry out the recommended course of action (e.g., installing a software patch, migrating a workload).

Readers will appreciate that although the embodiments described above relate to embodiments where steps (i.e., the steps in the example methods described above) are performed by a storage system, other embodiments are within the scope of the present disclosure. In fact, the steps described above may also be carried out, for example, by a workload planning module that is outside of the storage systems. Such a workload planning module may be embodied, for example, as a module of computer program instructions executing on computer hardware within a computing device (e.g., a server) that is external to the storage systems described above. In such an embodiment, the computing device that is external to the storage systems described above may be coupled to the storage systems via one or more data communications networks, data communications links, or otherwise configured to engage in data communications directly or indirectly with the storage systems. In such an example, messages may be exchanged between the computing device that is external to the storage systems and the storage systems themselves. In an additional embodiment, the steps described above may also be carried out, for example, by a workload planning module that is embodied as a module of computer program instructions executing on computer hardware within a cloud environment. In such an embodiment, the workload planning module may be communicatively coupled to the storage systems via one or more data communications networks, data communications links, or otherwise configured to engage in data communications directly or indirectly with the storage systems. In such an example, messages may be exchanged between the workload planning module and the storage systems themselves. For completeness, FIG. 9 sets forth an embodiment in which an example method is carried out by a workload planning module (908) that is external to any of the storage systems, although the method depicted in FIG. 9 could also be carried out by one or more of the storage systems (either alone or in combination with the workload planning module).

For further explanation, FIG. 9 sets forth a flowchart illustrating an additional example method of workload planning in a storage system according to some embodiments of the present disclosure. The example method depicted in FIG. 9 is similar to the example methods described above, as the example method depicted in FIG. 9 also includes many of the same or related steps.

The example method depicted in FIG. 9 includes generating (910), in dependence upon data (404) collected from a plurality of storage systems (402, 406, 408), one or more load models (912) that predicts performance load on one or more storage systems (406, 408) in a fleet (906) of storage systems (406, 408) based on characteristics of each workload (422, 424, 904) supported by the fleet (906) of storage systems (406, 408). The fleet (906) of storage systems (406, 408) depicted in FIG. 9 may be embodied, for example, as a plurality of storage systems (406, 408) that belong to a single business entity, as a plurality of storage systems (406, 408) that are managed under a single management plane, and so on.

The data (404) collected from a plurality of storage systems (402, 406, 408) may be embodied, for example, as telemetry data that is periodically sent from the storage systems (402, 406, 408) to the workload planning module (908). Such telemetry data may include information that is useful for monitoring the operation of the storage system that sends the data including, for example, information describing various performance characteristics of the storage system, information describing various workloads that are executing on the storage system, and other types of information. The information describing various performance characteristics of the storage system can include, for example, the number of IOPS being serviced by the storage system, the utilization rates of various computing resources (e.g., CPU utilization) within the storage system, the utilization rates of various networking resources (e.g., network bandwidth utilization) within the storage system, the utilization rates of various storage resources (e.g., NVRAM utilization) within the storage system, and many others. Likewise, the information describing various workloads that are executing on the storage system can include, for example, information describing the number of IOPS being generated by a particular workload, overwrite rates for I/O operations that are being generated by the workload, the amount of read bandwidth that is being consumed by I/O operations generated by the workload, and many others. As such, an examination of the telemetry data can reveal characteristics of the workloads (420, 422, 424, 902, 904) supported by one or more of the storage systems (402, 406, 408). The characteristics of the workloads (420, 422, 424, 902, 904) executing on the storage systems (402, 406, 408) can include, for example, information describing the number of IOPS being generated by the workload, overwrite rates for I/O operations that are being generated by the workload, the amount of read bandwidth that is being consumed by I/O operations generated by the workload, and many others.

In the example method depicted in FIG. 9 , one or more load models (912) that predict performance load on one or more storage systems (406, 408) in a fleet (906) of storage systems (406, 408) may be generated (910). The term ‘performance load’ used herein may refer to a measure of load on a storage system that is generated in dependence upon multiple system metrics. For example, the performance load on the storage systems (406, 408) in the fleet (906) may be generated in dependence upon the amount of read bandwidth being serviced by the storage system, the amount of write bandwidth being serviced by the storage system, the amount of IOPS being serviced by the storage system, the amount of computing load being placed on the storage system, the amount of data transfer load being placed on the storage system, and many other factors. In such an example, the performance load on the storage systems (406, 408) in the fleet (906) may be calculated according to some formula that takes as inputs the weighted or unweighted combination of such factors described in the preceding sentence. The performance load on the storage systems (406, 408) in the fleet (906) can therefore, in some embodiments, represent a single measure of load on a storage system that is generated in dependence upon multiple system metrics.

In the example method depicted in FIG. 9 , generating (910), in dependence upon data (404) collected from a plurality of storage systems (402, 406, 408), one or more load models (912) that predicts performance load on one or more storage systems (406, 408) in a fleet (906) of storage systems (406, 408) based on characteristics of each workload (422, 424, 904) supported by the fleet (906) of storage systems (406, 408) may be carried out, for example, through the use of machine learning techniques. In such an example, machine learning algorithms may be fed with information describing various performance characteristics of various storage systems (as extracted from the telemetry data) and information describing various workloads that are executing on various storage systems (as extracted from the telemetry data) to identify correlations between the amount of performance load that was placed on a particular storage system given the characteristics of the workloads that were executing on the particular storage system at the same point in time. In such an example, one or more load models (412) may be created for a variety of different storage system configurations. For example, load models may be created for storage systems that have different hardware configurations, load models may be created for storage systems that have different software configurations, load models may be created for storage systems that have different configuration settings, or any combination thereof. As such, each particular load model that is generated may be specific to a particular combination of hardware, software, configuration settings, or other attributes of a particular storage system configuration. In other embodiments, each particular load model may be to a subset of such attributes of a particular storage system configuration.

The example method depicted in FIG. 9 also includes generating (914), for each workload (422, 424, 904) supported by the fleet (906) of storage systems (406, 408), predicted characteristics (916) of the workload (422, 424, 904). In the example method depicted in FIG. 4 , generating (914) predicted characteristics (916) of each workload (422, 424, 904) supported by the fleet (906) of storage systems (406, 408) can include performing a time-series analysis of each workload (422, 424, 904). Readers will appreciate that the telemetry data described herein may not only be useful for enabling a centralized management service to monitor the operation of the storage system that sends the data, but such telemetry data may also be useful for identifying trends associated with the workloads themselves. As such, an examination of the telemetry data can be used to generate trending information for the workloads including, for example, information describing the rate at which the number of IOPS being generated by the workload has been changing, the rate at which overwrite rates for I/O operations that are being generated by the workload are changing, the rate at which the amount of read bandwidth that is being consumed by I/O operations generated by the workload is changing, and many others. In such a way, predicted characteristics (416) of the one or more workloads (422, 424, 904) may be generated (914) by extrapolating identified trends out over a period of time in the future.

Consider an example in which telemetry data gathered from a plurality of storage systems (402, 404, 406) indicates that, on average, the amount of CPU resources required to support a virtual desktop infrastructure workload doubles every three years. In such an example, if a particular workload (422) that is executing on one storage system (408) in the fleet (906) is a virtual desktop infrastructure workload, generating (914) predicted characteristics (416) of such a workload may be carried out, at least in part, by determining the amount of CPU resources currently required to support the particular workload (422) and assuming that the amount of CPU resources that will be required to support the particular workload (422) in the future will double every three years. In such a way, the load demands created by each workload may be projected to some point in the future.

The example method depicted in FIG. 9 also includes predicting (918) performance load on each storage system (406, 408) in the fleet (906) of storage systems (406, 408) in dependence upon the one or more load models (912) and the predicted characteristics (916) of the one or more workloads (422, 424, 904). Predicting (918) performance load on each storage system (406, 408) in the fleet (906) of storage systems (406, 408) may be carried out, for example, by utilizing the predicted characteristics (416) of the one or more workloads (422, 424, 904) that will be supported by a particular storage system as inputs to the load model (912) associated with the particular storage system. In such a way, if the one or more workloads (422, 424, 904) do change over time as predicted (thereby resulting in a change to the amount of system resources that are consumed by the workloads), and the load model (912) can accurately predict how well the particular storage system could support the workloads in their new state, the performance load on the storage system can be accurately predicted.

The example method depicted in FIG. 9 also includes identifying (920), for each storage system (406, 408) in the fleet (906) of storage systems (406, 408), a preferred placement for each of the one or more workloads (422, 424, 904). In the example method depicted in FIG. 9 , identifying (920) a preferred placement for each of the one or more workloads (422, 424, 904) may be carried out by identifying the one or more storage systems (406, 408) in the fleet (906) of storage systems (406, 408) that should be used to support a particular workload (422, 424, 904). Identifying (920) a preferred placement for each of the one or more workloads (422, 424, 904) may be carried out, for example, by predicting (918) the performance load on each storage system (406, 408) in the fleet (906) of storage systems (406, 408) for each possible permutation that workloads can be distributed across the storage systems (406, 408) in the fleet (906). In such an example, various criteria could be utilized to identify which permutation would represent a best fit. For example, in one embodiment the best fit could be identified as the permutation that resulted in the longest period of time until the predicted performance load on any of the storage systems (406, 408) will exceed performance capacity of the particular storage system. Alternatively, in another embodiment the best fit could be identified as the permutation that resulted in the largest amount of difference between: 1) the performance capacity of the storage system, and 2) the predicted performance load on the storage system at a predetermined time (e.g., in 2 months) of the fullest (in terms of performance load v. performance capacity) storage system in the fleet (906). In such a way, by identifying (920) a preferred placement for each of the one or more workloads (422, 424, 904), a fleet-level view can be taken and workloads supported by the fleet (906) of storage systems (406, 408) can be distributed in a way that is optimal for the fleet (906) as a whole.

The example method depicted in FIG. 9 includes migrating (922), in dependence upon the preferred placement for each of the one or more workloads (422, 424, 904), a particular workload (422, 424, 904) among the storage systems (406, 408) in the fleet (906) of storage systems (406, 408). In the example method depicted in FIG. 9 , migrating (922) a particular workload (422, 424, 904) among the storage systems (406, 408) in the fleet (906) of storage systems (406, 408) in dependence upon the preferred placement for each of the one or more workloads (422, 424, 904) can result in a particular workload (422, 424, 904) being moved from one storage system within the fleet (906) to another storage system within the fleet (906). For example, if identifying (920) a preferred placement for a first workload (422) revealed that the preferred placement for the first workload (422) was on storage system (408), the first workload (422) could be migrated (922) from storage system (406) to storage system (408). In such an example, migrating (922) a particular workload could cause the data contained in a particular volume (or any other data that is specific to the workload being migrated) to be moved from one storage system to another storage system. Data may be moved, for example, using asynchronous or synchronous data replication techniques, by sending the data from one storage system to another storage system via a data communications path between the storage systems, or in some other way. Readers will appreciate that migrating (922) a particular workload (422, 424, 904) among the storage systems (406, 408) in the fleet (906) of storage systems (406, 408) in dependence upon the preferred placement for each of the one or more workloads (422, 424, 904) may be carried out automatically and without user intervention. For example, the state of the fleet (906) may be constantly monitored and workloads may be automatically migrated as the state of the fleet (906) changes (e.g., workloads are added, workloads are deleted, storage systems are added to the fleet, storage systems are removed from the fleet, storage systems within the fleet are modified, devices within a particular storage system fail, and so on).

Readers will appreciate that embodiments of the present disclosure can improve the operation of individual storage systems as well as fleets of storage systems. In fact, the embodiments described above can result in the intelligent placement of workloads within individual storage systems and across a fleet of storage systems, as the performance capabilities of each storage system may be intelligently aligned with the performance load that is generated by each workload and by a collection of workloads. In such a way, system resources may be efficiently utilized without overwhelming individual storage systems. Furthermore, actions (e.g., an automated software upgrade) may be initiated upon the detection of a possible overconsumption of performance resources, such that the storage systems can experience less downtime as problems may be resolved before the problems actually occur, rather than reactively addressing problems as they arise.

In some embodiments of the present disclosure, when a particular workload (or volume) is moved from a first storage system to a second storage system, the amount of performance capacity and even storage capacity that will become available on the first storage system may be determined, presented to a user such as a system admin, or otherwise utilized. One issue, however, is that moving a particular workload (or volume) may require that snapshots of volume or snapshots otherwise associated with the workload may also need to be moved to the second storage system. Because any of this data (e.g., the data in the volume or portions of the snapshot) may be deduplicated, however, it may be challenging to ascertain the size of the particular volume and its related snapshots, as moving some data may not actually cause that data to be removed from the first storage system. Consider an example in which a particular block of data is written to a first volume on a first storage system, the particular block of data is written to a second volume on the first storage system, and a deduplication process ultimately deletes one copy of the block of data from the first storage system, such that the first volume and the second volume point to the single copy of the block of data that resides on the first storage system. If the first volume is subsequently moved to a second storage system, the block of data does not get deleted from the first storage system as the second volume still requires that a copy of that data block be retained by the first storage system. As such, when predicting how much storage capacity will be gained on the first storage system as a result of moving the first volume to another storage system, the amount of space that will be gained may be expressed using upper and lower bounds to effectively form a range. In some embodiments, the upper bound could be equal to the sum of the provisioned size of the volume and the snapshots provisioned space, while the lower bound could be equal to the sum of the volume's unique space (i.e., volume data that is not common with the data from other volumes or snapshots) and the snapshot's unique space. Readers will appreciate that other formulas may be used to calculate the upper and lower bounds.

Embodiments of the present disclosure can also include GUIs that may be used to provide and interact with the functionality described above. The GUIs may be configured to illustrate the impact on a single storage system or a fleet of storage system if a particular action were taken, including deleting a volume, migrating a volume, or scaling the volume over time. The GUI may be configured to display a list of workloads that are supported by each of the storage system, where a user can select one of the display workloads and select various actions to take. For example, a user could select the action of “migrate” where the GUI would then present a list of storage systems that the user could migrate the selected workload to. In fact, available target storage systems may be presented in one way (e.g., normal text) whereas unavailable target storage systems may be presented in another way (e.g., greyed out text). A particular storage system may be unavailable as a migration target, for example, because the storage system does not have sufficient capacity to support the workload, because the storage system has been designated as being unavailable, or for other reasons. Likewise, the GUI could support actions such as “copy” (where a copy of a workload is created on a second storage system), “delete”, or many others. In fact, the GUI could support a “simulation” function where performing some other action (e.g., migrate, copy, delete) is simulated in the sense that the impact on each storage system is displayed so that a user can determine whether to actually perform the action. The impact on each storage system could include, for example, displaying the projected impact on available storage capacity in each storage system that would result from performing the action, displaying the predict performance load on each storage that would result from performing the action, and so on. Such a simulate function could also be used to display the impact on one or more storage systems that would result from modifying any of the storage systems (e.g., adding additional storage devices, performing a software upgrade), including illustrating how workloads would be migrated if the modification were to actually take place.

Embodiments of the present disclosure may also take into consideration whether one or more volumes on a particular storage system are being replicated when determining where workloads should reside. In such an example, if a particular volume is being replicated, recovery point objectives may be taken into account and workloads may be placed on the storage system only if the storage system can still meet its recovery point objectives. For example, a particular workload may not be placed on a particular storage system if the storage system does not have the performance capacity to support the workload and maintain recovery point objectives for replicated volumes on the storage system. As such, embodiments of the present disclosure may use machine learning to develop a model to predict if a given protection group meet its RPO. Furthermore, modifications may be made to peak performance models and sustained performance models to take replication features into account for arrays that replicate datasets.

For further explanation, FIG. 10 sets forth a flowchart illustrating an example method of migrating workloads (1016) between a plurality of execution environments (1012 a, 1012 b, 1012 n) according to some embodiments of the present disclosure. In the example method depicted in FIG. 10 , each of the execution environments (1012 a, 1012 b, 1012 n) may be embodied as a collection of computer hardware resources and computer software resources that are capable of supporting the execution of a particular workload (1016). The execution environments (1012 a, 1012 b, 1012 n) may be embodied, for example, as a one or more of the storage systems described above, as a cloud computing environment (including a public cloud, a private cloud, or some combination thereof), as a collection of one or more servers, as a hyper-converged infrastructure (‘HCI’), as a converged infrastructure (‘CI’), as an infrastructure that includes a combination of HCI elements and CI elements, and so on.

The example method depicted in FIG. 10 includes identifying (1004), in dependence upon characteristics (1002) of a workload (1016), one or more execution environments (1012 a, 1012 b, 1012 n) that can support the workload (1016). Identifying (1004) one or more execution environments (1012 a, 1012 b, 1012 n) that can support the workload (1016) may be carried out, for example, by identifying characteristics (1002) of the workload (1016) and identifying the execution environments (1012 a, 1012 b, 1012 n) whose resources are capable of supporting the execution of the workload (1016). For example, if the characteristics (1002) of the workload (1016) indicate that the workload (1016) uses block storage, only those execution environments (1012 a, 1012 b, 1012 n) that offer block storage may be identified (1004) as being an execution environment (1012 a, 1012 b, 1012 n) that can support the workload (1016). Alternatively, if the characteristics (1002) of the workload (1016) indicate that the workload (1016) reads and writes from files, only those execution environments (1012 a, 1012 b, 1012 n) that offer a file system may be identified (1004) as being an execution environment (1012 a, 1012 b, 1012 n) that can support the workload (1016). Readers will appreciate that many characteristics (1002) of the workload (1016) may be taken into consideration when identifying (1004) one or more execution environments (1012 a, 1012 b, 1012 n) that can support the workload (1016). For example, characteristics (1002) describing the performance requirements of the workload (1016) may be taken into consideration, characteristics (1002) describing the availability requirements of the workload (1016) may be taken into consideration, characteristics (1002) describing the data security requirements of the workload (1016) may be taken into consideration, characteristics (1002) describing the data resiliency requirements of the workload (1016) may be taken into consideration, and so on including any combination of a wide range of characteristics.

The example method depicted in FIG. 10 also includes determining (1006), for each execution environment (1012 a, 1012 b, 1012 n), costs (1008) associated with supporting the workload (1016) on the execution environment (1012 a, 1012 b, 1012 n). Determining (1006) the costs (1008) associated with supporting the workload (1016) on each execution environment (1012 a, 1012 b, 1012 n) that was identified (1004) as being capable of supporting the workload (1016) may be carried out, for example, by summing the financial costs that would be associated with supporting the workload (1016) on each execution environment (1012 a, 1012 b, 1012 n) that was identified (1004) as being capable of supporting the workload (1016).

Consider an example in which the execution environment (1012 a, 1012 b, 1012 n) that was identified (1004) as being capable of supporting the workload (1016) was a public cloud. In such an example, the costs (1008) associated with supporting the workload (1016) on the public cloud may include the sum of: 1) the costs associated with storing a dataset accessed by the workload in storage that provides sufficient performance for the workload, 2) the costs associated with utilizing cloud-based processing resources (including VMs, lambdas, and so on) that can execute the workload in accordance with performance requirements of the workload, 3) the costs associated with deploying the workload in a way (e.g., across multiple availability zones) so as to maintain required resiliency standards associated with the workload and its data, 4) and any other costs associated with deploying the workload in a public cloud. Alternatively, if the execution environment (1012 a, 1012 b, 1012 n) that was identified (1004) as being capable of supporting the workload (1016) was an on-premises storage system, the costs (1008) associated with supporting the workload (1016) may be quite different. In such an example, the costs (1008) associated with supporting the workload (1016) on an on-promises storage system may include the sum of: 1) the costs associated with purchasing the storage system, 2) the costs associated with maintaining the storage system, 3) the costs associated with deploying the storage system, 4) and any other costs associated with deploying the workload in an on-premises storage system. In such an example, the costs (1008) associated with supporting the workload (1016) on the execution environment (1012 a, 1012 b, 1012 n) may be expressed in terms of total dollars over the lifetime of the workload, dollars per unit of time, or in some other way.

The example method depicted in FIG. 10 also includes selecting (1010), in dependence upon the costs (1008) associated with supporting the workload (1016) on each the execution environments (1012 a, 1012 b, 1012 n), a target execution environment for supporting the workload (1016). Selecting (1010) a target execution environment for supporting the workload (1016) in dependence upon the costs (1008) associated with supporting the workload (1016) on each the execution environments (1012 a, 1012 b, 1012 n) may be carried out, for example, by selecting the execution environment that can support the workload (1016) at the lowest cost as the target execution environment for supporting the workload (1016). In the example depicted in FIG. 10 , a first execution environment (1012 a) is depicted as being the target execution environment that was selected (1010) for supporting the workload (1016).

The example method depicted in FIG. 10 also includes executing (1014) the workload (1016) on the target execution environment (1012 a). Executing (1014) the workload (1016) on the target execution environment (1012 a) may be carried out, for example, by deploying source code associated with the workload within a container in the target execution environment, by installing and executing an executable version of the source code associated with the workload within the target execution environment, and in other ways. Readers will appreciate that in some embodiments, executing (1014) the workload (1016) on the target execution environment (1012 a) may be carried out by issuing a request to the execution environment to execute a particular workload, as the entity that identifies (1004) one or more execution environments (1012 a, 1012 b, 1012 n) that can support the workload (1016), determines (1006) costs (1008) associated with supporting the workload (1016) on each execution environment (1012 a, 1012 b, 1012 n), and selects (1010) a target execution environment for supporting the workload (1016) may only be able to issue a request to the execution environment to execute a particular workload. As such, for the purposes of this step and other ‘executing’ steps described herein, executing (1014) the workload (1016) on the target execution environment (1012 a) and issuing a request to the target execution environment (1012 a) to execute the workload (1016) can be viewed as being synonymous.

For further explanation, FIG. 11 sets forth a flowchart illustrating an additional example method of migrating workloads between a plurality of execution environments according to some embodiments of the present disclosure. The example method depicted in FIG. 11 is similar to the example method depicted in FIG. 10 , as the example method depicted in FIG. 11 also includes identifying (1004) one or more execution environments (1012 a, 1012 b, 1012 n) that can support the workload (1016), determining (1006) costs (1008) associated with supporting the workload (1016) on each execution environment (1012 a, 1012 b, 1012 n), selecting (1010) a target execution environment for supporting the workload (1016), and executing (1014) the workload (1016) on the target execution environment (1012 a).

The example method depicted in FIG. 11 also includes detecting (1102) a change to the workload. Readers will appreciate that the workload may change for a variety of reasons. For example, if the workload is a virtual desktop infrastructure, the workload may change in response to a change in the number of virtual desktops that are supported by the virtual desktop infrastructure. Likewise, if the workload is a web portal for an online retailer, the workload may change in response to a successful advertising campaign substantially increasing the number of customers that shop with the online retailer. In such an example, detecting (1102) a change to the workload may be carried out, for example, by detecting a change in I/O operations issued by the workload that meets a predetermined threshold (e.g., 10% increase or decrease), by detecting a change in the amount of user-requests received by the workload that meets a predetermined threshold (e.g., 10% increase or decrease), by detecting a changes to a service level agreement (e.g., via detecting a change to workload configuration information or other metadata) such that the workload is required to provide a different service level to users of the workload, by detecting that the amount of data storage required by the workload has changed by a predetermined threshold, or in many other ways. In the example depicted in FIG. 11 , the changed workload is illustrated by denoting the original workload as workload (1016 a) whereas the changed workload is labelled as workload (1016 b).

Readers will appreciate that in response to detecting (1102) a change to the workload, the steps of identifying (1004) one or more execution environments (1012 a, 1012 b, 1012 n) that can support the changed workload (1016 b), determining (1006) costs (1008) associated with supporting the changed workload (1016 b) on each execution environment (1012 a, 1012 b, 1012 n), and selecting (1010) a target execution environment for supporting the changed workload (1016 b) may be performed to identify the optimal execution environment (1012 a, 1012 b, 1012 n) for the changed workload (1016 b), as it may not be optimal to execute the changed workload (1016 b) in the same execution environment (1012 a) as the workload (1012 a) in its original form. As such, a new target execution environment (1012 b) may be selected (1010) to support the execution of the changed workload (1016 b).

The example method depicted in FIG. 11 also includes migrating (1104) the workload from the target execution environment (1012 a) to a new target execution environment (1012 b). Migrating (1104) the workload from the target execution environment (1012 a) to a new target execution environment (1012 b) may be carried out, for example, by destroying a container on the target execution environment (1012 a) that includes source code associated with the workload and deploying a container on the new target execution environment (1012 b) that includes source code associated with the workload, by uninstalling and ceasing execution an executable version of the source code associated with the workload the target execution environment (1012 a) and also installing and executing an executable version of the source code associated with the workload on the new target execution environment (1012 b), and in other ways.

For further explanation, FIG. 12 sets forth a flowchart illustrating an additional example method of migrating workloads between a plurality of execution environments according to some embodiments of the present disclosure. The example method depicted in FIG. 12 is similar to the example method depicted in FIG. 10 , as the example method depicted in FIG. 12 also includes identifying (1004) one or more execution environments (1012 a, 1012 b, 1012 n) that can support the workload (1016), determining (1006) costs (1008) associated with supporting the workload (1016) on each execution environment (1012 a, 1012 b, 1012 n), selecting (1010) a target execution environment for supporting the workload (1016), and executing (1014) the workload (1016) on the target execution environment (1012 a).

The example method depicted in FIG. 12 also includes predicting (1202) a change to the workload. Readers will appreciate that the workload may change for a variety of reasons. For example, if the workload is a virtual desktop infrastructure, the workload may change in response to a change in the number of virtual desktops that are supported by the virtual desktop infrastructure. Likewise, if the workload is a web portal for an online retailer, the workload may change in response to a successful advertising campaign substantially increasing the number of customers that shop with the online retailer. In such an example, predicting (1202) a change to the workload may be carried out, for example, by detecting that the predicted performance load on a particular execution environment will meet a predetermined threshold (e.g., 10% increase or decrease) as described above, through the use of load models associated with a particular workload as described above, through the use of historical modeling, or in many other ways. In such an example, predicting (1202) a change to the workload may vary from detecting (1102) a change to the workload, as described above, as changes to the workload may not yet be fully realized at the time that the change was predicted (1202). In the example depicted in FIG. 12 , the predicted version of the workload is illustrated by denoting the original workload as workload (1016 a) whereas the workload in its predicted form is labelled as workload (1016 b).

Readers will appreciate that in response to predicting (1202) a change to the workload, the steps of identifying (1004) one or more execution environments (1012 a, 1012 b, 1012 n) that can support the workload (1016 b) in its predicted form, determining (1006) costs (1008) associated with supporting the workload (1016 b) in its predicted form on each execution environment (1012 a, 1012 b, 1012 n), and selecting (1010) a target execution environment for supporting the workload (1016 b) in its predicted form may be performed to identify the optimal execution environment (1012 a, 1012 b, 1012 n) for the workload (1016 b) in its predicted form, as it may not be optimal to execute the workload (1016 b) in its predicted form in the same execution environment (1012 a) as the workload (1012 a) in its original form. As such, a new target execution environment (1012 b) may be selected (1010) to support the execution of the workload (1016 b) in its predicted form.

The example method depicted in FIG. 12 also includes migrating (1204) the workload from the target execution environment (1012 a) to a new target execution environment (1012 b). Migrating (1204) the workload from the target execution environment (1012 a) to a new target execution environment (1012 b) may be carried out, for example, by destroying a container on the target execution environment (1012 a) that includes source code associated with the workload and deploying a container on the new target execution environment (1012 b) that includes source code associated with the workload, by uninstalling and ceasing execution an executable version of the source code associated with the workload the target execution environment (1012 a) and also installing and executing an executable version of the source code associated with the workload on the new target execution environment (1012 b), and in other ways.

For further explanation, FIG. 13 sets forth a flowchart illustrating an additional example method of migrating workloads between a plurality of execution environments according to some embodiments of the present disclosure. The example method depicted in FIG. 13 is similar to the example method depicted in FIG. 10 , as the example method depicted in FIG. 13 also includes identifying (1004) one or more execution environments (1012 a, 1012 b, 1012 n) that can support the workload (1016), determining (1006) costs (1008) associated with supporting the workload (1016) on each execution environment (1012 a, 1012 b, 1012 n), selecting (1010) a target execution environment for supporting the workload (1016), and executing (1014) the workload (1016) on the target execution environment (1012 a).

The example method depicted in FIG. 13 also includes detecting (1302) a change to the costs (1008) associated with supporting the workload on a particular execution environment (1012 a, 1012 b, 1012 n). Readers will appreciate that the costs (1008) associated with supporting the workload on a particular execution environment (1012 a, 1012 b, 1012 n) may change for a variety of reasons. Consider an example in which the execution environment (1012 a, 1012 b, 1012 n) that was identified (1004) as being capable of supporting the workload (1016) was a public cloud. In such an example, the costs (1008) associated with supporting the workload (1016) on the public cloud may change because of a change in the pricing structure of the services offered by the public cloud, because of a change in the services offered by the public cloud, because of a change in the amount of services and resources consumed by the workload, or for many other reasons. Alternatively, if the execution environment (1012 a, 1012 b, 1012 n) that was identified (1004) as being capable of supporting the workload (1016) was an on-premises storage system, the costs (1008) associated with supporting the workload (1016) may change due to a change in electricity prices at the facility that houses the on-premises storage system, due to an upgrade of the on-premises storage system, due to a change in the amount of labor (or cost of labor) required to maintain the on-premises storage system, or for many other reasons. In such an example, detecting (1302) a change to the costs (1008) associated with supporting the workload on a particular execution environment (1012 a, 1012 b, 1012 n) may be carried out in many ways, including periodically re-performing the step of determining (1006) costs (1008) associated with supporting the workload (1016) on each execution environment (1012 a, 1012 b, 1012 n).

Readers will appreciate that in response to detecting (1302) a change to the costs (1008) associated with supporting the workload on a particular execution environment (1012 a, 1012 b, 1012 n), the steps of identifying (1004) one or more execution environments (1012 a, 1012 b, 1012 n) that can support the workload (1016 b) in its predicted form, determining (1006) costs (1008) associated with supporting the workload (1016 b) in its predicted form on each execution environment (1012 a, 1012 b, 1012 n), and selecting (1010) a target execution environment for supporting the workload (1016 b) in its predicted form may be performed to identify the optimal execution environment (1012 a, 1012 b, 1012 n) for the workload (1016) given the updated costs associated with one or more of the execution environments (1012 a, 1012 b, 1012 n), as it may not be optimal to execute the workload (1016 b) on the same execution environment that was selected given the original costs associated with one or more of the execution environments (1012 a, 1012 b, 1012 n). As such, a new target execution environment (1012 b) may be selected (1010) to support the execution of the workload (1016 b). In the example depicted in FIG. 13 , the workload as originally deployed is illustrated by denoting the original workload as workload (1016 a) whereas the workload as being redeployed in a new execution environment is labelled as workload (1016 b).

The example method depicted in FIG. 13 also includes migrating (1304) the workload from the target execution environment (1012 a) to a new target execution environment (1012 b). Migrating (1304) the workload from the target execution environment (1012 a) to a new target execution environment (1012 b) may be carried out, for example, by destroying a container on the target execution environment (1012 a) that includes source code associated with the workload and deploying a container on the new target execution environment (1012 b) that includes source code associated with the workload, by uninstalling and ceasing execution an executable version of the source code associated with the workload the target execution environment (1012 a) and also installing and executing an executable version of the source code associated with the workload on the new target execution environment (1012 b), and in other ways.

For further explanation, FIG. 14 sets forth a flowchart illustrating an additional example method of migrating workloads between a plurality of execution environments according to some embodiments of the present disclosure. The example method depicted in FIG. 14 is similar to the example method depicted in FIG. 10 , as the example method depicted in FIG. 14 also includes identifying (1004) one or more execution environments (1012 a, 1012 b, 1012 n) that can support the workload (1016), determining (1006) costs (1008) associated with supporting the workload (1016) on each execution environment (1012 a, 1012 b, 1012 n), selecting (1010) a target execution environment for supporting the workload (1016), and executing (1014) the workload (1016) on the target execution environment (1012 a).

In the example method depicted in FIG. 14 , identifying (1004) one or more execution environments (1012 a, 1012 b, 1012 n) that can support the workload (1016) can include identifying (1402) one or more execution environments (1012 a, 1012 b, 1012 n) that can meet predetermined performance requirements associated with the workload (1016). The predetermined performance requirements associated with the workload (1016) can include, for example, a number of IOPS generated by the workload (1016) that should be supported, the read latency and write latency that should be obtained for I/O operations generated by the workload (1016), an amount of user requests that the workload should be able to respond to within a predetermined period of time, and many others. In such an example, only those that can meet predetermined performance requirements associated with the workload (1016) should be identified (1004) as being execution environments (1012 a, 1012 b, 1012 n) that can support the workload (1016).

For further explanation, FIG. 15 sets forth a flowchart illustrating an additional example method of migrating workloads between a plurality of execution environments according to some embodiments of the present disclosure. The example method depicted in FIG. 15 is similar to the example method depicted in FIG. 10 , as the example method depicted in FIG. 15 also includes identifying (1004) one or more execution environments (1012 a, 1012 b, 1012 n) that can support the workload (1016), determining (1006) costs (1008) associated with supporting the workload (1016) on each execution environment (1012 a, 1012 b, 1012 n), selecting (1010) a target execution environment for supporting the workload (1016), and executing (1014) the workload (1016) on the target execution environment (1012 a).

In the example method depicted in FIG. 15 , identifying (1004) one or more execution environments (1012 a, 1012 b, 1012 n) that can support the workload (1016) can include identifying (1502), for a plurality of workloads (1016, 1510), one or more execution environments (1012 a, 1012 b, 1012 n) that can support each workload (1016, 1510) in dependence upon on characteristics (1002) of each workload (1016, 1510). Identifying (1502) one or more execution environments (1012 a, 1012 b, 1012 n) that can support each workload (1016, 1510) may be carried out, for example, by identifying characteristics (1002) of each workload (1016, 1510) and identifying the execution environments (1012 a, 1012 b, 1012 n) whose resources are capable of supporting the execution of each of the workloads (1016, 1510). For example, if the characteristics (1002) of a first workload (1016) indicate that the workload (1016) uses block storage, only those execution environments (1012 a, 1012 b, 1012 n) that offer block storage may be identified (1502) as being an execution environment (1012 a, 1012 b, 1012 n) that can support the workload (1016). Alternatively, if the characteristics (1002) of a second workload (1510) indicate that the workload (1510) reads and writes from files, only those execution environments (1012 a, 1012 b, 1012 n) that offer a file system may be identified (1502) as being an execution environment (1012 a, 1012 b, 1012 n) that can support the workload (1510). Readers will appreciate that many characteristics (1002) of each workload (1016, 1510) may be taken into consideration when identifying (1502) one or more execution environments (1012 a, 1012 b, 1012 n) that can support each of the workloads (1016, 1510). For example, characteristics (1002) describing the performance requirements of the each workload (1016, 1510) may be taken into consideration, characteristics (1002) describing the availability requirements of each workload (1016, 1510) may be taken into consideration, characteristics (1002) describing the data security requirements of each workload (1016, 1510) may be taken into consideration, characteristics (1002) describing the data resiliency requirements of each workload (1016, 1510) may be taken into consideration, and so on including any combination of a wide range of characteristics.

In the example method depicted in FIG. 15 , determining (1006) costs (1008) associated with supporting the workload (1016) on each execution environment (1012 a, 1012 b, 1012 n) can include determining (1504), for a plurality of workload placement scenarios, cumulative costs associated with supporting each workload (1016, 1510) in accordance with each of the workload placement scenarios. In the example depicted in FIG. 15 , a particular workload placement scenario may include one permutation of the set of possible arrangements of the workloads (1016, 1510). For example, if a first execution environment (1012 a) and a second execution environment (1012 b) were identified (1502) as being capable of support a first workload (1016), whereas the second execution environment (1012 b) and a third execution environment (1012 n) were identified as being capable of supporting a second workload (1510), the set of possible arrangements of workloads would include: 1) the first workload (1016) is executed on the first execution environment (1012 a) and the second workload (1510) is executed on the second execution environment (1012 b), 2) the first workload (1016) is executed on the first execution environment (1012 a) and the second workload (1510) is executed on the third execution environment (1012 n), 3) the first workload (1016) is executed on the second execution environment (1012 b) and the second workload (1510) is also executed on the second execution environment (1012 b), and 4) the first workload (1016) is executed on the second execution environment (1012 b) and the second workload (1510) is executed on the third execution environment (1012 n). In such an example, each arrangement would be a distinct workload placement scenario.

Determining (1504) the cumulative costs associated with supporting each workload (1016, 1510) in accordance with each of the workload placement scenarios may be carried out, for example, by summing the financial costs that would be associated with supporting each workload (1016, 1510) on its respective execution environment (1012 a, 1012 b, 1012 n) as identified in the particular workload placement scenario. Continuing with the example described above, the cumulative cost associated with workload placement scenario would be as follows: 1) the sum of the costs associated with executing the first workload (1016) on the first execution environment (1012 a) and the costs associated with executing the second workload (1510) on the second execution environment (1012 b), 2) the sum of the costs associated with executing the first workload (1016) on the first execution environment (1012 a) and costs associated with executing the second workload (1510) on the third execution environment (1012 n), 3) the sum of the costs associated with executing the first workload (1016) on the second execution environment (1012 b) and the costs associated with executing the second workload (1510) on the second execution environment (1012 b), and 4) the sum of the costs associated with executing the first workload (1016) on the second execution environment (1012 b) and the costs associated with executing the second workload (1510) on the third execution environment (1012 n).

Consider an example in which the execution environment (1012 a, 1012 b, 1012 n) that was identified (1502) as being capable of supporting a first workload (1016) was a public cloud. In such an example, the costs (1008) associated with supporting the workload (1016) on the public cloud may include the sum of: 1) the costs associated with storing a dataset accessed by the workload in storage that provides sufficient performance for the workload, 2) the costs associated with utilizing cloud-based processing resources (including VMs, lambdas, and so on) that can execute the workload in accordance with performance requirements of the workload, 3) the costs associated with deploying the workload in a way (e.g., across multiple availability zones) so as to maintain required resiliency standards associated with the workload and its data, 4) and any other costs associated with deploying the workload in a public cloud. Likewise, if the execution environment (1012 a, 1012 b, 1012 n) that was identified (1502) as being capable of supporting a second workload (1510) was an on-premises storage system, the costs (1008) associated with supporting the workload (1510) may be quite different. In such an example, the costs (1008) associated with supporting the workload (1510) on an on-promises storage system may include the sum of: 1) the costs associated with purchasing the storage system, 2) the costs associated with maintaining the storage system, 3) the costs associated with deploying the storage system, 4) and any other costs associated with deploying the workload in an on-premises storage system. In such an example, the costs (1008) associated with supporting the workload (1510) on the execution environment (1012 a, 1012 b, 1012 n) may be expressed in terms of total dollars over the lifetime of the workload, dollars per unit of time, or in some other way.

In the example method depicted in FIG. 15 , selecting (1010) a target execution environment for supporting the workload (1016) can include selecting (1506), in dependence upon the cumulative costs associated with supporting each workload (1016, 1510) in accordance with each of the workload placement scenarios, a target execution environment for supporting each workload (1016, 1510). Selecting (1506) a target execution environment for supporting each workload (1016, 1510) in dependence upon the cumulative costs associated with supporting each workload (1016, 1510) in accordance with each of the workload placement scenarios may be carried out, for example, by selecting the workload placement scenario that had the lowest cumulative cost.

In the example method depicted in FIG. 15 , executing (1014) the workload (1016) on the target execution environment (1012 a) can include executing (1508 a, 1508 b) each workload (1016, 1510) on its selected target execution environment (1012 a, 1012 b). Executing (1508 a, 1508 b) each workload (1016, 1510) on its selected target execution environment (1012 a, 1012 b) may be carried out, for example, by deploying source code associated with each workload within a container in its respective target execution environment, by installing and executing an executable version of the source code associated with each workload within its respective target execution environment, and in other ways.

Readers will appreciate that although the example depicted in FIG. 15 relates to an embodiment where two workloads (1016, 1510) are placed within one or more execution environments, in other embodiments, a larger number of workloads may be similarly placed within one or more execution environments. In fact, embodiments of the present disclosure can include additional workloads and additional execution environments.

For further explanation, FIG. 16 sets forth a flowchart illustrating an additional example method of migrating workloads between a plurality of execution environments according to some embodiments of the present disclosure. The example method depicted in FIG. 16 is similar to the example method depicted in FIG. 10 , as the example method depicted in FIG. 16 also includes identifying (1004) one or more execution environments (1012 a, 1012 b, 1012 n) that can support the workload (1016), determining (1006) costs (1008) associated with supporting the workload (1016) on each execution environment (1012 a, 1012 b, 1012 n), selecting (1010) a target execution environment for supporting the workload (1016), and executing (1014) the workload (1016) on the target execution environment (1012 a).

In the example method depicted in FIG. 16 , identifying (1004) one or more execution environments (1012 a, 1012 b, 1012 n) that can support the workload (1016) can include identifying (1602) one or more execution environments that can support the workload in dependence upon on a workload fingerprint. In the example method depicted in FIG. 16 , the workload fingerprint may include information describing the current characteristics of the workload as well as information describing the expected future characteristics of the workload. For example, the workload fingerprint may include information describing the number of IOPS currently (or within a recent predetermined period of time (e.g., within the last minute)) being generated by the workload, information describing the rate at which the number of IOPS being generated by the workload has been changing, the current (or within a recent predetermined period of time (e.g., within the last minute)) overwrite rate for I/O operations being generated by the workload, the rate at which overwrite rates for I/O operations that are being generated by the workload are changing, the amount of read bandwidth currently (or within a recent predetermined period of time (e.g., within the last minute)) being consumed by I/O operations generated by the workload, the rate at which the amount of read bandwidth that is being consumed by I/O operations generated by the workload is changing, and many others. In such a way, the workload fingerprint can include information that can be used to generate predicted characteristics of the one or more workloads by extrapolating identified trends out over a period of time in the future. Identifying (1602) one or more execution environments that can support the workload in dependence upon on a workload fingerprint may therefore be carried out, for example, by identifying those execution environments that could support the workload in its predicted state in the future.

In the example method depicted in FIG. 16 , determining (1006) costs (1008) associated with supporting the workload (1016) on each execution environment (1012 a, 1012 b, 1012 n) can include determining (1604), for each execution environment, the costs associated with supporting the workload in dependence upon on the workload fingerprint. Determining (1604), for each execution environment, the costs associated with supporting the workload in dependence upon on the workload fingerprint may be carried out, for example, by identifying the costs that would be associated with supporting the workload on a particular execution environment if the workload were to change as predicted. In the example method depicted in FIG. 16 , the workload fingerprint may be created by generating, for one or more workloads, predicted characteristics of the one or more workloads, as described in greater detail above. In such an example, telemetry data may be utilized to generate predicted characteristics of the one or more workloads, as described in greater detail above.

Readers will appreciate that although the previous paragraphs relate to embodiments where steps may be described as occurring in a certain order, no ordering is required unless otherwise stated. In fact, steps described in the previous paragraphs may occur in any order. Furthermore, although one step may be described in one figure and another step may be described in another figure, embodiments of the present disclosure are not limited to such combinations, as any of the steps described above may be combined in particular embodiments.

Example embodiments are described largely in the context of a fully functional computer system. Readers of skill in the art will recognize, however, that the present disclosure also may be embodied in a computer program product disposed upon computer readable storage media for use with any suitable data processing system. Such computer readable storage media may be any storage medium for machine-readable information, including magnetic media, optical media, or other suitable media. Examples of such media include magnetic disks in hard drives or diskettes, compact disks for optical drives, magnetic tape, and others as will occur to those of skill in the art. Persons skilled in the art will immediately recognize that any computer system having suitable programming means will be capable of executing the steps of the method as embodied in a computer program product. Persons skilled in the art will recognize also that, although some of the example embodiments described in this specification are oriented to software installed and executing on computer hardware, nevertheless, alternative embodiments implemented as firmware or as hardware are well within the scope of the present disclosure.

Embodiments can include a system, a method, and/or a computer program product. The computer program product may include a computer readable storage medium (or media) having computer readable program instructions thereon for causing a processor to carry out aspects of the present disclosure.

The computer readable storage medium can be a tangible device that can retain and store instructions for use by an instruction execution device. The computer readable storage medium may be, for example, but is not limited to, an electronic storage device, a magnetic storage device, an optical storage device, an electromagnetic storage device, a semiconductor storage device, or any suitable combination of the foregoing. A non-exhaustive list of more specific examples of the computer readable storage medium includes the following: a portable computer diskette, a hard disk, a random access memory (RAM), a read-only memory (ROM), an erasable programmable read-only memory (EPROM or Flash memory), a static random access memory (SRAM), a portable compact disc read-only memory (CD-ROM), a digital versatile disk (DVD), a memory stick, a floppy disk, a mechanically encoded device such as punch-cards or raised structures in a groove having instructions recorded thereon, and any suitable combination of the foregoing. A computer readable storage medium, as used herein, is not to be construed as being transitory signals per se, such as radio waves or other freely propagating electromagnetic waves, electromagnetic waves propagating through a waveguide or other transmission media (e.g., light pulses passing through a fiber-optic cable), or electrical signals transmitted through a wire.

Computer readable program instructions described herein can be downloaded to respective computing/processing devices from a computer readable storage medium or to an external computer or external storage device via a network, for example, the Internet, a local area network, a wide area network and/or a wireless network. The network may comprise copper transmission cables, optical transmission fibers, wireless transmission, routers, firewalls, switches, gateway computers and/or edge servers. A network adapter card or network interface in each computing/processing device receives computer readable program instructions from the network and forwards the computer readable program instructions for storage in a computer readable storage medium within the respective computing/processing device.

Computer readable program instructions for carrying out operations of the present disclosure may be assembler instructions, instruction-set-architecture (ISA) instructions, machine instructions, machine dependent instructions, microcode, firmware instructions, state-setting data, or either source code or object code written in any combination of one or more programming languages, including an object oriented programming language such as Smalltalk, C++ or the like, and conventional procedural programming languages, such as the “C” programming language or similar programming languages. The computer readable program instructions may execute entirely on the user's computer, partly on the user's computer, as a stand-alone software package, partly on the user's computer and partly on a remote computer or entirely on the remote computer or server. In the latter scenario, the remote computer may be connected to the user's computer through any type of network, including a local area network (LAN) or a wide area network (WAN), or the connection may be made to an external computer (for example, through the Internet using an Internet Service Provider). In some embodiments, electronic circuitry including, for example, programmable logic circuitry, field-programmable gate arrays (FPGA), or programmable logic arrays (PLA) may execute the computer readable program instructions by utilizing state information of the computer readable program instructions to personalize the electronic circuitry, in order to perform aspects of the present disclosure.

Aspects of the present disclosure are described herein with reference to flowchart illustrations and/or block diagrams of methods, apparatus (systems), and computer program products according to some embodiments of the disclosure. It will be understood that each block of the flowchart illustrations and/or block diagrams, and combinations of blocks in the flowchart illustrations and/or block diagrams, can be implemented by computer readable program instructions.

These computer readable program instructions may be provided to a processor of a general purpose computer, special purpose computer, or other programmable data processing apparatus to produce a machine, such that the instructions, which execute via the processor of the computer or other programmable data processing apparatus, create means for implementing the functions/acts specified in the flowchart and/or block diagram block or blocks. These computer readable program instructions may also be stored in a computer readable storage medium that can direct a computer, a programmable data processing apparatus, and/or other devices to function in a particular manner, such that the computer readable storage medium having instructions stored therein comprises an article of manufacture including instructions which implement aspects of the function/act specified in the flowchart and/or block diagram block or blocks.

The computer readable program instructions may also be loaded onto a computer, other programmable data processing apparatus, or other device to cause a series of operational steps to be performed on the computer, other programmable apparatus or other device to produce a computer implemented process, such that the instructions which execute on the computer, other programmable apparatus, or other device implement the functions/acts specified in the flowchart and/or block diagram block or blocks.

The flowchart and block diagrams in the Figures illustrate the architecture, functionality, and operation of possible implementations of systems, methods, and computer program products according to various embodiments of the present disclosure. In this regard, each block in the flowchart or block diagrams may represent a module, segment, or portion of instructions, which comprises one or more executable instructions for implementing the specified logical function(s). In some alternative implementations, the functions noted in the block may occur out of the order noted in the figures. For example, two blocks shown in succession may, in fact, be executed substantially concurrently, or the blocks may sometimes be executed in the reverse order, depending upon the functionality involved. It will also be noted that each block of the block diagrams and/or flowchart illustration, and combinations of blocks in the block diagrams and/or flowchart illustration, can be implemented by special purpose hardware-based systems that perform the specified functions or acts or carry out combinations of special purpose hardware and computer instructions.

Readers will appreciate that the steps described herein may be carried out in a variety of ways and that no particular ordering is required. It will be further understood from the foregoing description that modifications and changes may be made in various embodiments of the present disclosure without departing from its true spirit. The descriptions in this specification are for purposes of illustration only and are not to be construed in a limiting sense. The scope of the present disclosure is limited only by the language of the following claims. 

What is claimed is:
 1. A method comprising: identifying, for a plurality of workloads, one or more execution environments that can support the workload based on characteristics of a workload; determining, for a plurality of workload placement scenarios, cumulative costs associated with supporting each workload in accordance with each of the workload placement scenarios; selecting, in dependence upon the cumulative costs associated with supporting each workload in accordance with each of the workload placement scenarios, a target execution environment for supporting each workload; and executing each workload on its selected target execution environment.
 2. The method of claim 1 further comprising: detecting a change to a particular workload; and migrating the particular workload from its selected target execution environment to a new target execution environment.
 3. The method of claim 1 further comprising: predicting a change to a particular workload; and migrating the particular workload from its selected target execution environment to a new target execution environment.
 4. The method of claim 1 further comprising: detecting a change to the costs associated with supporting a particular workload on a particular execution environment; and migrating the particular workload from its selected target execution environment to a new target execution environment.
 5. The method of claim 1 wherein identifying one or more execution environments that can support each workload further comprises identifying one or more execution environments that can meet predetermined performance requirements associated with each workload.
 6. The method of claim 1 wherein: identifying one or more execution environments that can support each workload further comprises identifying one or more execution environments that can support the workload in dependence upon on a workload fingerprint; and determining, for each execution environment, costs associated with supporting the workload on the execution environment further comprises determining, for each execution environment, the costs associated with supporting the workload in dependence upon on the workload fingerprint.
 7. The method of claim 6 further comprising generating, for one or more workloads, predicted characteristics of the one or more workloads.
 8. An apparatus comprising a computer processor, a computer memory operatively coupled to the computer processor, the computer memory having disposed within it computer program instructions that, when executed by the computer processor, cause the apparatus to carry out the steps of: identifying, for a plurality of workloads, one or more execution environments that can support the workload based on characteristics of a workload; determining, for a plurality of workload placement scenarios, cumulative costs associated with supporting each workload in accordance with each of the workload placement scenarios; selecting, in dependence upon the cumulative costs associated with supporting each workload in accordance with each of the workload placement scenarios, a target execution environment for supporting each workload; and executing a workload on its selected target execution environment.
 9. The apparatus of claim 8 further comprising computer program instructions that, when executed by the computer processor, cause the apparatus to carry out the steps of: detecting a change to a particular workload; and migrating the particular workload from its selected target execution environment to a new target execution environment.
 10. The apparatus of claim 8 further comprising computer program instructions that, when executed by the computer processor, cause the apparatus to carry out the steps of: predicting a change to a particular workload; and migrating the particular workload from its selected target execution environment to a new target execution environment.
 11. The apparatus of claim 8 further comprising computer program instructions that, when executed by the computer processor, cause the apparatus to carry out the steps of: detecting a change to the costs associated with supporting a particular workload on a particular execution environment; and migrating the particular workload from its selected target execution environment to a new target execution environment.
 12. The apparatus of claim 8 wherein identifying one or more execution environments that can support each workload further comprises identifying one or more execution environments that can meet predetermined performance requirements associated with each workload.
 13. The apparatus of claim 8 wherein: identifying one or more execution environments that can support each workload further comprises identifying one or more execution environments that can support the workload in dependence upon on a workload fingerprint; and determining, for each execution environment, costs associated with supporting the workload on the execution environment further comprises determining, for each execution environment, the costs associated with supporting the workload in dependence upon on the workload fingerprint.
 14. The apparatus of claim 13 further comprising computer program instructions that, when executed by the computer processor, cause the apparatus to carry out the step of further comprising generating, for one or more of workloads, predicted characteristics of the one or more workloads.
 15. A storage system comprising a computer processor, a computer memory operatively coupled to the computer processor, the computer memory having disposed within it computer program instructions that, when executed by the computer processor, cause the storage system to carry out the steps of: identifying, for a plurality of workloads, one or more execution environments that can support the workload based on characteristics of a workload; determining, for a plurality of workload placement scenarios, cumulative costs associated with supporting each workload in accordance with each of the workload placement scenarios; selecting, in dependence upon the cumulative costs associated with supporting each workload in accordance with each of the workload placement scenarios, a target execution environment for supporting each workload; and executing a workload on its selected target execution environment.
 16. The storage system of claim 15 further comprising computer program instructions that, when executed by the computer processor, cause the storage system to carry out the steps of: detecting a change to a particular workload; and migrating the particular workload from its selected target execution environment to a new target execution environment.
 17. The storage system of claim 15 further comprising computer program instructions that, when executed by the computer processor, cause the storage system to carry out the steps of: predicting a change to a particular workload; and migrating the particular workload from its selected target execution environment to a new target execution environment.
 18. The storage system of claim 15 further comprising computer program instructions that, when executed by the computer processor, cause the storage system to carry out the steps of: detecting a change to the costs associated with supporting a particular workload on a particular execution environment; and migrating the particular workload from its selected target execution environment to a new target execution environment. 